Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Summary Notes

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 Topic 1: Forces and Motion

Movement and position

• Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. If the speed of something is changing, it
is accelerating. The acceleration of free fall near to the Earth is constant.
Total distance
• 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = total time
• Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
• Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.
change in velocity
• 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = total time
v−u
a=
t
• (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)2 = (𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)2 + (2 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑣2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
• Distance is measured in metres (m), time in seconds (s), speed and velocity in metres per
second (m/s), and acceleration in metres per second
squared (m/s2).

In a distance-time graph:

• The gradient is velocity

• Negative gradient is returning back to the starting point
• A horizontal line means it is stationary
• If the distance is zero, it is back at the starting point
• A curved line means that the velocity is changing, and it is
accelerating.

In a velocity-time graph:

• The gradient is acceleration

• Negative gradient (i.e. negative acceleration) is
deceleration
• If the speed is zero, it is at rest
• A horizontal line means constant speed
• The area under the line is the distance travelled
• A curved line means that the acceleration is changing.

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 Forces, movement, shape and momentum

Vectors & scalars:

o A vector has magnitude and direction

o A scalar has just a magnitude

Examples:

Scalars Vectors
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Time Acceleration
Energy Force

Effects of forces:

Forces can change the speed, shape or direction of a body and they are measured in Newtons (N).
There are various different types of forces (e.g., gravitational, electrostatic).

Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating. Air resistance
is a form of friction.

To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they should be added together
if in the same direction and subtracted if in the opposite direction.

o Newton’s first law states that an object has a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant
force.
o Newton’s second law states that rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the
force applied, i.e., 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
o Newton’s third law states that every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.
For example, the force of the Earth’s gravity on an object is equal and opposite to the force of the
object’s gravity on the Earth.

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Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object, measured in kilograms (kg).
Weight is a gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational field on a mass).

o 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
o The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10N/kg.
o The weight of an object acts through its centre of gravity.

For example, motion of a body falling in a uniform gravitational field:

o Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
o As it falls, it accelerates which increases its speed and hence air resistance
o This causes the resultant force downwards to decrease
o Therefore, the acceleration decreases, so it is not speeding up as quickly
o Eventually they are equal and opposite and balance so there is no resultant force
o So, there is no acceleration and the terminal velocity is reached

When a driver notices a hazard:

o The distance travelled in the time between the driving realizing he needs to brake and actually
pressing the brakes is called the thinking distance. Factors which increase the thinking
distance include:
o Greater speed
o Slower reaction time due to alcohol, tiredness or distractions.
o Reaction time can also be increased by caffeine, which reduces the thinking distance.
o The distance travelled in the time between pressing the brakes and the vehicle coming to a
stop is called the braking distance. Factors which increase the stopping distance include:
o Greater speed or mass
o Poor road conditions (icy, wet) or car conditions (worn tires, worn brake pads)
o The stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance.

A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This is called deformation:

• Elastic deformation is when the object returns to its original shape when the load has been
removed, an example being a spring being stretched under normal usage.

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Hooke’s law states that for a spring, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
where F is the force applied to the spring, k is the spring constant, and x is the extension.

Linear (straight line) force-extension graph:

• Elastic deformation following Hooke’s law
• The point it stops being linear is called the limit of
proportionality. From then on, it does not obey Hooke’s
law.
• Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension graph:

• Deformation not following Hooke’s law
• After this region, it will fracture

The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect, measured in Newton metres (Nm).
• 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑭𝒅
• An object is in equilibrium when the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of
anticlockwise moments (the principle of moments) and there is no resultant force.
• For a horizontal beam supported at its ends, the upwards forces at the supports change with
the position of a heavy object placed on the beam. The nearer the heavy object to a given
support, the greater the force at that support.

The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity:

• 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
• It is measured in kilogram metres per second (kgm/s).

The force exerted on an object is equal to its change in momentum over time:
change in momentum
• 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = total time
mv−mu
F= time
• Safety features in cars work by increasing the time taken for the people in the car to come to
rest (i.e., there is the same change in momentum in a longer time, so the force is reduced). For
example, a seatbelt achieves this by stretching.

In a collision, the total momentum before is equal to the total momentum afterwards, known as the
principle of the conservation of momentum.

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For example: a 10kg stationary gun is loaded with a 0.01kg bullet. It is fired, with the bullet travelling
at 100m/s. What is the recoil speed of the gun?

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒗
𝒗 = −𝟎.𝟏𝒎/𝒔
So, the recoil speed is 0.1m/s (-0.1m/s is the velocity which is a vector, so we take the magnitude of it
as we are finding the speed).

Topic 2: Electricity

Mains electricity

Dangers of electricity

Hazards:

• Damaged insulation – contact with the wire due to gaps in the insulation can cause an electric
shock or pose a fire hazard by creating a short circuit.
• Overheating of cables – high currents passing through thin wire conductors cause the wires to
heat up to very high temperatures which could melt the insulation and cause a fire.
• Damp conditions – water can conduct a current so wet electrical equipment can cause an
electric shock.

Fuses and circuit breakers:

• A fuse is a thin piece of wire which overheats and melts if the current is too high, protecting the
circuit. They have a current rating which should be slightly higher than the current used by the
device in the circuit. The most common are 3A, 5A and 13A.
• Circuit breakers consist of an automatic electromagnet switch which which breaks the circuit if
the current rises over a certain value. This is better than a fuse as it can be reset and used
again, and they operate faster.

Earthing metal cases:

• Earth wires creates a safe route for current to flow through in the case of a short circuit,
preventing electric shocks.
• Earth wires have a very low resistance so a strong current surge through them which breaks
the fuse and disconnects the appliance.

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Double insulation:

• Appliances with double insulation have either plastic casings or have been designed so that the
earth wire cannot touch the metal casing, preventing them from giving an electric shock.

Electrical transfer of energy

Energy, measured in joules (J), is transferred from chemical energy in the battery to electrical energy
used by circuit components and then to the surroundings.
• The power of a component is measured in watts (W) and is given by P=IV (by using V=IR, this
can be shown to be equivalent to P=I2R and P=V2/R). Using this equation, the energy
transferred is given by E=IVt.

Alternating current and direct current

In a direct current, the current only flows in one direction whereas in an alternating current, the
current continuously changes direction.
Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.) whereas the current supplied by a cell or battery is
direct current (d.c.).

Energy and voltage in circuits

Current

Current I is measured in amperes (A) and is the rate of flow of charge at a point in the circuit.
𝑄
• The current is given by I= 𝑡 , where Q is measured in coulombs (C) and t in seconds (s).
• In metals, current is due to a flow of electrons. Because electrons are negatively charged,
conventional current (which is the rate of flow of positive charge) is in the opposite direction
to the flow of electrons.
• Current is conserved at a junction in a circuit because charge is always conserved.

Potential difference

Potential difference V is measured in volts (V where 1 V = 1 JC-1) and is the work done per unit charge
in moving between two points in a circuit.
𝑊 𝐸
• The potential difference is given by V= 𝑄 = 𝑄.
• It is measured with a voltmeter placed in parallel across the component.
• The higher the potential difference, the greater the current.

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Resistance

The resistance of a component is measured in ohms (𝛺) and is given by the potential difference across
𝑉
it divided by the current through it, i.e., R= 𝐼 . The greater the resistance, the harder it is for current to
flow through the component.

In an ohmic conductor (such as a resistor at a constant temperature), the current is directly

proportional to the voltage (i.e., it has constant resistance). In a non-ohmic conductor (such as a
filament lamp), the resistance changes as the voltage and current changes.

In a filament lamp, this is because as the current increases through the filament, so does the
temperature, which means electrons and ions vibrate more and collide more, increasing resistance.

A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as the temperature increases.

A light dependent resistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as light intensity increases.

Electric circuits

Series:
• Components are connected end to end in one loop
• The same current flows through every component
• The potential difference is shared across each component (i.e. the sum of the p.d.s across the
components is equal to the total p.d. across the supply).
• The total resistance is the sum of the resistances of each component RT = R1 + R2 + …
Parallel:
• Components are connected to the power supply in separate branches
• The current is shared between each branch (i.e., the sum of the currents in the separate
branches is equal to the current through the source)
• The potential difference is the same across every branch
• Connecting lamps in parallel is advantageous because if one breaks, current can still pass
through the rest.

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Electric charge

Charge is measured in coulombs. There are positive and negative charges; unlike charges attract and
like charges repel.
• Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
• Conductors such as metals allow electrons to flow through them whereas insulators such as
plastics impede the flow of electrons.
• When two insulators are rubbed together, electrons move from one to the other and they
become charged. For example, when a rod is rubbed with a cloth, electrons are transferred
from the rod onto the cloth and the rod becomes positively charged.

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Electrostatic phenomena caused by the movement of electrons have many useful applications but also
pose many risks.
• Dangers of electrostatic charges include:
o When fueling aircraft and tankers, if enough charge builds up it can create a spark,
igniting fuel and causing a fire or explosion. A wire can be attached so that the charge
instead flows into the earth.
• Uses of electrostatic charges include:
o In an inkjet printer, droplets of ink are charged and pass between two charged metal
plates, one of which has a positive charge and the other a negative charge. The droplets
are attracted to the plate with the opposite charge and repelled by the plate which the
same charge and deflected towards a specific place on the paper.
o In a photocopier, the image of a document is projected onto a positively charged plate;
where light falls onto the plate, the charge leaks away. Negatively charged toner
particles are attracted to the remaining positive areas. Paper is then placed over the
plate and the toner is transferred to it, making the photocopy.

Topic 3: Waves

General wave properties

Waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter; the particles oscillate about a
fixed point.

Types of waves:
• Transverse waves
o Has peaks and troughs
o Vibrations are at right angles to the direction of travel
o An example is light
• Longitudinal waves
o Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions (particles moved apart)
o Vibrations are in the same direction as the direction of travel
o An example is sound
Some Quantities related to wave:
Amplitude – the distance from the equilibrium position to the maximum displacement
Wavefront – a surface containing points affected in the same way by a wave at a given
time
Frequency – the number of waves that pass a single point per second
Wavelength – the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the next
wave
Time period – the time taken for one complete wave to pass a fixed point

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The speed of a wave is equal to the product of the frequency and wavelength:
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
The frequency of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of the time period, measured in Hertz (Hz):
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑁
𝑓=
𝑡

If a wave source is moving relative to an observer, there will be a change

in the observed frequency and wavelength due to the doppler effect. This
is because the wavefronts either get bunched together or spaced apart. An
example of this is when the siren of an ambulance is high-pitched as it
approaches you, and low-pitched as it goes away.

Reflection:
All waves can be reflected
• The law of reflection states that:
o Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
• Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

Refraction:
All waves can be refracted, which is when the speed of a wave changes when it
enters a new medium
• If the wave enters a denser medium, its speed decreases and it bends
towards the normal
• If the wave enters a less dense medium, its speed increases and it bends
away from the normal
• In all cases, the frequency stays the same but the wavelength changes.

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Electromagnetic spectrum

You need to learn the main groups of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of decreasing wavelength
and increasing frequency including the colours of the visible spectrum (ROYGBIV).

All electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum and approximately the same
speed in air.
Uses of electromagnetic waves:
o Radio waves are used for radio and television communications. They have a long wavelength
and are reflected by the ionosphere.
o Microwaves are used for satellite transmissions and in cooking. They pass through the
ionosphere and penetrate deep into food.
o Infrared radiation is used in heaters and night vision equipment.
o Visible light is used in fibre optics and photography.
o Ultraviolet light is used in fluorescent lamps.
o X-rays are used in medical imaging and in security as they can penetrate material easily.
o Gamma radiation is used in sterilizing food and medical equipment due to its high energy.

Hazards:
o Microwaves can cause internal heating of body tissues.
o Infrared radiation can cause skin burns.
o Ultraviolet light exposure increases the risk of skin cancer and blindness. o Sun cream and
sun glasses prevent over-exposure in summer.
o Gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause mutations leading to cancer.
o Exposure to these kinds of radiation should be minimised.

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Light and sound

Light waves are transverse waves and can be reflected and refracted.

• Reflection of light can be shown when light reflects at a plane mirror and
forms an image.
o This can be represented by a ray diagram like the first one shown
on the right.

• Refraction of light can be shown when light is passed through a glass slab at an angle to its
normal.

o When light enters a more optically dense medium, the angle of

incidence (the angle between the incident ray and the normal)
is greater than the angle of refraction (the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal). This can be represented by a
ray diagram like the second one shown on the right.
o The opposite is true when light enters a less optically dense
medium.

Snell's law relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive index of a
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
medium by 𝜂 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction.
Total internal reflection:
• At a certain angle of incidence called the critical angle, the light will travel along the boundary
between the two media.
• Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle and the light reflects back into the
medium.
• For total internal reflection to occur, the light must also be travelling
from a more optically dense medium into a less optically dense
medium (most common example is glass to air).
• The critical angle c can be related to the refractive index by:
1
𝜂=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶

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Optical fibres:
• An optical fibre is a long thin rod of glass surrounded by cladding which uses total internal
reflection to transfer information by light, even when bent.

• They are used extensively in medicine (endoscopes, inside-body flexible cameras) and
communications (high speed data transfer).

Sound waves are longitudinal waves and can be reflected and refracted.

The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
To measure the speed of sound in air, you can make a noise at a known, large distance from a solid
wall and record the time for the echo (reflected sound) to be heard, then use speed = distance/time,
taking into account the fact that the sound had to go there and back.

An oscilloscope connected to a microphone can be used to display a sound wave and find its
frequency and amplitude.
• The greater the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder it is.
• The greater the frequency of a sound wave, the higher its pitch.

• The first sound wave shown is quiet and low

pitched.
• The second sound wave shown is loud and
low pitched.
• The third sound wave shown is loud and high
pitched.

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 Topic 4: Energy Resources and Energy Transfers

Energy transfers

Energy can be transferred between different stores including chemical, kinetic, gravitational, elastic,
thermal, magnetic, electrostatic and nuclear as a result of an event or process.

Energy can be transferred in various ways including:

• Mechanically e.g., when gravity accelerates an object and gives it kinetic energy.
• Electrically e.g., when a current pass through a lamp and it emits light and heat.
• By heating e.g., when a fire is used to heat up an object.
• By radiation e.g., when vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound, or an object
emits electromagnetic radiation.

Energy is always conserved. The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

The efficiency is the ratio of the useful energy output to the total energy supplied, often expressed
as a percentage.

useful energy output

efficiency = X100%
useful energy input

Sankey diagrams can be used to represent the transfer

of input energy into useful energy and wasted energy.
For example, the diagram on the left shows the Sankey
diagram for a lamp.

Conduction:
• Thermal energy in solids and liquids can be transferred by conduction.
• Non-metals are usually poor conductors known as insulators. As a non-metal is heated up, the
molecules vibrate more and cause adjacent molecules to vibrate more also, transferring heat
energy from hot parts to cooler parts. Because insulators transfer heat slowly, they are used to
reduce unwanted energy transfer such as in homes.
• Metals are usually good conductors. The electrons can leave the atoms and move freely among
positively charged ions. As the metal is heated, the ions and electrons vibrate more. The free
electrons collide with ions throughout the metal and transfer heat energy from hot parts to
cooler parts.

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Convection:
• Thermal energy in fluids (liquids and gases) can be transferred by convection.
• Convection occurs when molecules in a fluid with high thermal energy move to an area with
low thermal energy. Preventing the circulation of the fluid can help reduce unwanted energy
transfer by convection.
• When part of a fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. It therefore rises up to less
dense areas in the fluid. Denser, colder fluid falls down to take its place.
• Examples of convection include in water boilers and hot air balloons.

Radiation
• Thermal energy is also transferred by infrared radiation which does not require a medium.
Infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Black bodies with a dull texture are the best absorbers and emitters of radiation. White bodies
with a shiny texture are the best reflectors of radiation. Shiny surfaces can be used to reduce
unwanted energy transfer such as on the surface of a vacuum flask.
• The higher the temperature and the greater the surface area of a body the more infrared
radiation emitted.

Work and power

Work is done when a force moves something through a distance. The work done is equal to the energy
transferred.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑

The conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy
and work. For example, when a ball is dropped, gravity does work on it and its gravitational potential
energy becomes kinetic energy as it accelerates downwards:
1
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1
𝐸𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Gravitational potential energy = mass X gravitational field strength X height

𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Power:
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done. For example, a
lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from electrical energy to
light and heat energy in a given time.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡

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Energy resources and electricity generation

• Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished as quickly as it is used. Examples

include:
o Wind
o Water (hydroelectricity, waves, tides)
o Geothermal
o Solar (heating systems and cells)
All have a potentially infinite energy supply, but they are usually costlier (e.g., the manufacture
and implementation of solar panels is very expensive) and less reliable (e.g., the wind is
intermittent and solar energy relies on good weather) than nonrenewable energy.

• Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the large energy
output but will eventually run out. Examples include:
o Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
▪ Cheaper than most renewable sources but harmful for the environment because
they release greenhouse gases which cause global warming.
o Nuclear power
▪ A small amount of radioactive material produces a lot of energy, but they produce
highly toxic nuclear waste which needs to be safely stored underground for many
years.

Energy transfers take place in the generation of electricity. For example, in a solar cell, light energy
from the sun is transferred into electrical energy.

Topic 5: Solids, Liquids and Gases

Density and pressure

The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume and is measured in kilograms per
metre cubed (kg/m3).
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

To find the density of a liquid:

• Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill it with the liquid
and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the mass of the liquid.
• The volume can be read from the cylinder.
• Find the density using the equation.

To find the density of solid:

• Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
• If the solid is:
o regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a ruler or other measuring tool and
then use a mathematical formula to find the volume.

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 o irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume of the water displaced.
This is the volume of the solid.
• Find the density using the equation.
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area and is measured in Pascals (Pa).
force
pressure =
area
F
P=
A
For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail:
• The force applied is the weight of your body
• The total area is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a larger area
o Therefore, on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater.

The pressure at a point in a gas or liquid at rest acts equally in all directions and causes a force at right
angles to any surface.

The pressure beneath a liquid surface increase with depth, the density of the liquid and the
gravitational field strength.
• It is given by 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Change of state

Heating a system increases its internal energy and causes either an increase in temperature or a
change of state.
• When the temperature of a body rises, the energy goes towards making the molecules vibrate
more and increases their kinetic energy.
• When a body changes state, energy goes towards making the molecules freer from each other
rather than increasing their kinetic energy – the temperature stays constant.
o Melting occurs when molecules in a solid vibrate enough to move away from their fixed
positions, turning into a liquid.
o Boiling occurs when molecules in a liquid gain enough energy to break their bonds and
become separate molecules, turning into a gas.

Graph showing the temperature of ice with time when

energy is put in at a constant rate:
• From A to B the ice is rising in temperature
• From B to C it is melting into water
• From C to D the water is rising in temperature
• From D to E the water is boiling into steam
• From E to F the steam is rising in temperature

Page | 18 Animesh Sir, BISC

Evaporation is the escape of molecules with higher energy from the surfaces of liquids. After they
escape, the remaining molecules have a lower average kinetic energy which means the temperature is
lower (i.e., evaporation cools the liquid).
• To increase the rate of evaporation, increase temperature, increase surface area, or provide a
draught.

Evaporation is different to boiling because it can happen at any temperature and only occurs at the
surface of the liquid.

• Solids
o Molecules close together in regular pattern
o Strong intermolecular forces of attraction
o Molecules vibrate but can’t move about

• Liquids
o Molecules close together in random arrangement
o Weaker intermolecular forces of attraction than solids
o Molecules move around each other

• Gases
o Molecules far apart in random arrangement
o Negligible/very weak intermolecular forces
o Molecules move quickly in all directions

The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a
substance by 1℃ and is measured in Joules per kilogram degree Celsius (J/kg℃).
Change in thermal energy = mass X specific heat X temperature difference
𝛥𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇

Ideal gas molecules

Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly due to collisions with other gas molecules.

Gases exert pressure on a container due to collisions between gas molecules and the wall. When the
molecules rebound off the walls, they change direction so their velocity and therefore momentum
changes. This means they exert a force because force is equal to the change in momentum over time.

• At a constant volume, if the temperature increases, the pressure increases because the
molecules move faster so they collide harder and more frequently with the walls.
o The temperature at which the pressure is zero is called absolute zero (-273℃). The Kelvin
scale of temperature defines absolute zero to be 0K with an increment of one Kelvin equal to
an increment of one degree Celsius. This means that:
▪ Temperature in Kelvin = Temperature in degree Celsius + 273
For a gas at fixed mass and volume, where the temperature is measured in Kelvin:

Page | 19 Animesh Sir, BISC

 𝑃1 𝑇1
=
𝑃2 𝑇2
At a constant temperature, if the volume increases, the pressure decreases because the molecules
collide less frequently with the walls and over a greater area.
For a gas at fixed mass and temperature:
P1𝑉1 = P2𝑉2
or, P𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The temperature in Kelvin of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The
higher the temperature, the greater the average kinetic energy and so the faster the average speed of
the molecules.

Topic 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism

Magnets repel and attract other magnets and attract magnetic materials. Like poles of magnets repel
and opposite poles attract.

• Non-magnetic materials are materials that are not attracted to magnets

and cannot be magnetised (e.g., glass, plastic)
• Magnetic materials are materials that are attracted to magnets and can
be magnetised (e.g., iron, steel, cobalt, nickel)
o Magnetism can be induced in magnetic materials by placing them
in a magnetic field.
o Magnetic materials that can be permanently magnetised are
described as magnetically hard (e.g., steel). Magnetic materials
that are only temporarily magnetised are described as
magnetically soft (e.g., soft iron).

Magnetic field lines:

• Magnetic field lines represent the magnetic force on a north pole
at a given point.
o The direction of a magnetic field line shows the direction
of the force.
o How close together the magnetic field lines are shows
the magnitude of the force.
• Field lines from magnets point from north to south.
o The field lines of a bar magnet are shown in the diagram.
o There is a uniform magnetic field between the opposite poles of two magnets placed
close together, as the field lines move from the north pole of one straight towards the
south pole of the other.

Page | 20 Animesh Sir, BISC

Electromagnetism

An electric current passing through a conductor produces a magnetic field

around it.

Electromagnets consist of a coil of wire wrapped around a magnetically soft

core and can be turned on and off.

• The right-hand grip rule determines the direction of the magnetic field produced by a current
carrying wire, shown in the first diagram.
• The magnetic field created by a current carrying solenoid is like the
field produced by a bar magnet, shown in the second diagram.
• The magnetic field created by a current carrying flat circular coil is
shown in the third diagram.

A force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

Fleming’s left-hand rule shows the relative directions of the force, field,
and current.
• If the current is reversed or the magnetic field is reversed, the force
will be reversed.
• If the magnitude of the current or of the magnetic field is increased, the magnitude of the force
will increase.
DC motors consist of a coil of wire in between two permanent magnets.
Direct current flows through the wire and it experiences a turning effect
due to the forces exerted on it in the magnetic field. The turning effect
can be increased by:
• increasing the current
• using a stronger magnetic field
• increasing the number of turns on the coil.
A split ring commutator is used to ensure that the direction that the current flows in the coil reverses
every half turn.

Loud speakers consist of a coil attached to a cone in a

magnetic field. When alternating current flows through the
coil, the cone is continuously pushed away and pulled back,
making a sound. The frequency (and therefore pitch) of the
sound can be altered by changing the frequency of the
alternating current used.

A force is also exerted on charged particles moving in a

magnetic field (because moving charged particles are
current) as long as they are not moving parallel to the field.

Page | 21 Animesh Sir, BISC

Electromagnetic induction

• When a conducting wire moves across a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it. If it is part of
a complete circuit, this causes a current to flow.
o The induced voltage can be increased by moving the wire more quickly, using a
stronger magnetic field, or increasing the length of the wire.
• A voltage is also induced in a coil with a changing magnetic field through it. For example, when
a magnet is moved into a coil, a voltage is induced in it.
o The more quickly the magnetic field changes, the greater the voltage.

Electricity can be generated by rotating a magnet within a coil or by rotating a coil in a magnetic field.
As they rotate, the magnetic field through the coil changes, which induces a voltage and therefore a
current in the coil. The voltage can be increased by:
• increasing the number of turns on the coil
• increasing the area of the coil
• using a stronger magnet
• increasing the speed of rotation.

A transformer consists of two coils wrapped around a soft iron core and is used to transform voltages.
They are used to step up the voltage in power lines which reduces power loss (because the current is
lower so less power is lost due to the resistance of the cables) and then step down the voltage for
usage in homes.
• An alternating voltage produces an alternating current in the primary coil. This creates a
changing magnetic field which links with the secondary coil and induces an alternating voltage
in it.
• A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary than the primary which means the
voltage of the secondary is greater than that of the primary.
• A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary than the primary which means the
voltage of the secondary is less than that of the primary.

𝐸𝑃 𝐼𝑠 𝑛𝑃
= =
𝐸𝑆 𝐼𝑃 𝑛𝑆

• For a 100% efficient transformer, because the power used is constant, 𝑽𝒑𝑰𝒑 =𝑽𝒔𝑰𝒔

Page | 22 Animesh Sir, BISC

 Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles
Radioactivity
An atom consists of:
o A positively charged nucleus made of:
o Positive protons
o Neutral neutrons
o Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of the
atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Isotopes are forms of an element’s
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. For a given nuclide 𝐴𝑍𝑋:
o X is the symbol of the element
o A is the mass (nucleon) number (number of neutrons and protons)
o Z is the atomic (proton) number (number of protons)

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a more stable one by
the release of radiation. It is a random process which means one cannot know what nucleus will
decay and when it will decay because it is down to chance.
Isotopes:
o Elements having same number of protons but different mass numbers are called isotopes of
each other.
o Number of electrons balances the number of protons in any atoms.
o Number of neutrons in the nucleus slightly vary and as a result mass changes keeping the
proton number same.
o Hydrogen has 3 prominent isotopes

Page | 23 Animesh Sir, BISC

 o Carbon has 3 isotopes

Stability of isotopes:
o Isotopes have different physical properties from each other due to different mass.
o Another difference is stability of the nucleus.
o Due to strong nuclear force of the nucleus protons stay inside the nucleus at a very short
distance in spite of same charge.
o Too many or too few neutrons make the nucleus unstable.
o Unstable nuclei decay and gives out radiation in the form of energy and particles.

Ionising Radiation:
o Unstable nuclei decay to give out ionising radiation
o Ionizing radiation is radiation that has sufficient energy to knock out electrons from any atom.
o Unstable nuclei decay at random and is not possible to predict which radioactive nuclei will
decay.
o There are 3 basic type of ionising radiation – alpha (𝛼), beta (𝛽) and gamma (γ)

Decay processes:
Alpha:
o A heavy nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
o These are fast moving particles releases when the unstable nuclei decay.
o These are helium nucleus.
o Its mass number is 4 because of 4 nucleons.
o These are charged because they carry 2 protons.
o They can travel only few centimeters due to highly ionizing capacity.
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 − 42𝐻𝑒 → 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌
o They have short range and are stopped by a sheet of few mm paper.

Page | 24 Animesh Sir, BISC

 o Beta:
o These are fast moving electrons that are ejected by a decaying nucleus.
o A beta particle forms by the decomposition of a neutron.
o A neutron turns into a proton and emits a beta particle (electron)
1 0
0𝑛 → 11𝐻 + −1𝑒
o Its symbol is −10𝛽
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation:
→ 147N + −10e
14
6C
o They are moderately ionising and moderately penetrating.
o They are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium.
o Gamma:
o After a previous decay, a nucleus with excess energy emits a gamma particle.
o Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
o They are lowly ionising and highly penetrating.
o They are stopped by many centimeters of lead.
o Neutron radiation:
o In neutron-rich nuclides, occasionally one or more neutrons are ejected.
o They are also emitted during nuclear fission.
o The nucleus becomes a new isotope of the original element according to the following
equation: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴−𝑍1𝑋 + 10𝑛
o Comparison between alpha, beta & gamma
Alpha Beta Gamma
What Helium Nucleus Fast moving electron EM wave
Type +ve -ve Neutral
Penetrating
Low More than alpha Maximum
Power
Influenced Electric & magnetic Electric & magnetic
No effect
by field field
Ionization Very high Medium Least
1
Mass 4 times of H times of H No mass
2000
Detection Photographic plate Photographic plate Photographic plate
Speed 10% of c 50% of c c

Page | 25 Animesh Sir, BISC

Investigate the penetrating powers of different kinds of radiation:
Apparatus:
▪ Radioactive sources: ○ Alpha source ○ Beta source ○ Gamma source
▪ Geiger counter
▪ Stopwatch
▪ Ruler
▪ Absorbers such as: ○ Plastic ○ Aluminium ○ Steel ○ Lead ○ Paper Method
Procedure:
1. Set up the Geiger counter without any of the radioactive sources nearby and record the
background activity over a period of about 15 minutes and calculate the count rate in
counts per minute (divide the total counts by the number of minutes).
2. Set up a clamp stand directly in front of where the source will be - this will be used to attach
your absorbers to.
3. Place the Geiger counter around 5cm from where the source will be, pointing towards the
clamp stand.
4. Move the first radioactive source into position and with no absorbers in place, record the
number counts over a 5-minute period and calculate the count rate.
5. Attach different absorbers to the clamp stand, one at a time, and repeat.
6. Correct all count-rate readings for background radiation by subtracting the background
reading measured in step 1.
7. Repeat for the other two sources and then compare the count rates for each source with
each different absorber.
8. A higher count rate for a given material means that more radiation has passed through the
absorber and so the radiation type is more penetrating.

Tips
o To develop this experiment further, you could experiment with different thicknesses of
absorbers to see how the penetration varies for each type of radiation.
o Repeat readings are beneficial in this experiment since it is not unusual to get anomalous
results due to miscounting or random variation.
o If readings for all combinations seem particularly low, the radioactive source may be too
old and may have become too inactive to get easily observable readings - a new source may
be required or count rates should be taken over a longer period of time.
o Consider the best way to display your results - you could construct bar charts for each
material or you could construct them for each radiation type.

Page | 26 Animesh Sir, BISC

 Safety Precautions
o Ensure radiation in use signs are clearly displayed, and that all those in the laboratory are
aware that radiation is in use.
o When not in use, ensure that the radioactive emitters are stored in their containers to
reduce unnecessary exposure.
o Use radioactive sources that have a half-life of a few years and have been approved for
school use.
o Never handle the sources directly, always use long-armed tongs with an extended arm to
maximize the distance you are from the source.
o A teacher/technician should always be present when working with radioactive sources in
the lab.

o Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation.
Sources of background radiation include:

Some ways of detecting radiation include:

o Photographic film:
o The more radiation absorbed by the film, the darker it gets (the film is initially white).
o They are worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
o Geiger-Muller tube:
o A Geiger-Muller tube is a tube which can detect radiation.
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound. The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.

Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation. Sources of
background radiation include:
o From space:
o Cosmic rays such as high-energy charged particles penetrating the atmosphere
o From Earth:
o Radioactive rocks which give off radioactive radon gas
o Food and drink which is radioactive
o Fallout from nuclear weapons testing
o Medical sources such as x-rays from MRI scanners
o Nuclear power plants which produce radioactive waste

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The activity of a radioactive source is the number of decays which occur per unit time and is
measured in becquerels (Bq where 1 Bq = 1 decay/s). The activity of a radioactive source decreases
over a period of time.

The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei
to decay, or the time taken for the activity to halve. It is
different for different radioactive isotopes.
o In the graph, the count rate drops from 80 to 40
counts per minute in 2 days, which means the half-life
is around 2 days.
o Background radiation must be subtracted before
attempting to perform half-life calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
o Industry
o Smoke detectors
▪ Long half-life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors.
▪ Alpha particles cause a current in the alarm.
▪ If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed and the
current drops, triggering the alarm.
o Thickness monitoring
▪ Long half-life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal sheets.
▪ A source and receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its
production. If there is a drop or rise in the number of beta particles detected,
then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be adjusted.

o Medicine
o Sterilization of equipment
Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is safe for
operations.
o Diagnosis and treatment
▪ Short half-life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers in
medicine as they concentrate in certain parts of the body.
▪ The half-life must be long enough for diagnostic procedures to be performed, but
short enough to not remain radioactive for too long.
▪ Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to destroy tumours with a
high dose of radiation.

Contamination occurs when a radioactive source has been introduced into or onto an object. The
contaminated object will be radioactive for as long as the source is in or on it.

Irradiation occurs when an object is exposed to a radioactive source which is outside the object. The
irradiated object does not become radioactive.

Exposure to radiation can destroy living cell membranes by ionisation, causing the cells to die, or
damage DNA which causes mutations that could lead to cancer.

Page | 28 Animesh Sir, BISC

Safety measures include:
o Minimising the time of exposure to radiation, keeping as big a distance from the radioactive
source as possible, and using shielding against radiation.
o Radioactive waste from nuclear reactors must be disposed of carefully, usually by burying it in
sealed drums deep underground and remotely handling it.

Fission and fusion

Nuclear fission:
o The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission.
o When a uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron, it splits into two daughter nuclei and 2 or 3
neutrons, releasing energy in the process as kinetic energy of the fission products.
o The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a chain reaction by striking other
uranium-235 nuclei.
In a nuclear reactor:
o Control rods (usually made of boron) are used to
absorb neutrons and keep the number of neutrons
such that only one fission neutron per event goes on
to induce further fission.
o The moderator (usually water) slows down neutrons
by collisions so that they are moving slow enough to
be absorbed by another uranium-235 nucleus.
o The reactor core is a thick steel vessel which
withstands the high pressures and temperatures and
absorbs some of the radiation. The whole core is kept
in a building with thick reinforced concrete walls that
act as radiation shields to absorb all the radiation that
escapes the reactor core.

Nuclear fusion:
o The process of fusing two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
o There is a loss of mass in the process, accompanied by a release of energy.
o Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy.
o Nuclear fusion does not happen at low temperatures and pressures because the electrostatic
repulsion of the protons is too great.

Page | 29 Animesh Sir, BISC

 Topic 8: Astrophysics
Motion in the universe

o The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies.

o A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars.
o Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy.

The gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass on a body in a gravitational field and is
measured in Newtons per kilogram (N/kg). It varies with the mass and size of the body and is
therefore different on other planets and the moon compared to the Earth.
• 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

Gravitational force enables the various bodies to orbit around

others. For example:
o Moons orbit planets
o The orbits are slightly elliptical with near constant orbital
speed
o Planets and comets orbit the Sun
o The orbits of planets are slightly elliptical with near
constant orbital speed. The orbits of comets are highly
elliptical with a greater orbital speed the closer they are to
the Sun.
o Artificial satellites orbit the Earth
o The greater the orbital radius or the smaller the time period, the greater the orbital speed:
2πX orbital rdius 2πr
orbital speed = =
time period T

Stellar evolution

• A star begins as a cloud of gas called a nebula. The

particles experience a weak attraction towards each
other due to gravity and begin to clump together.
• They continue to clump together until the pressure and
temperature is great enough for nuclear fusion to occur.
o Hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium
nuclei which releases a large amount of energy
and causes a great outwards pressure.
o This outwards pressure balances with the
inwards pressure due to gravity and the star is
now stable and called a main sequence star.
• Eventually the hydrogen in the star is used up. There is
no longer enough outward pressure from nuclear fusion
and it collapses under its own gravitational attraction, becoming unstable.
o If the star has a similar mass to the Sun, it expands massively and becomes a red giant.
It then becomes a white dwarf (and finally cools into a black dwarf).

Page | 30 Animesh Sir, BISC

 If the star has a mass larger than the Sun, it expands and becomes a red super giant,
o
before exploding in a supernova. What remains is either a neutron star, or if it was
exceptionally massive, a black hole.
Stars can be classified according to their colour. The colour of a star is
related to its surface temperature, with hotter stars being bluer and
cooler stars being redder.

The brightness of a star at a standard distance can be represented

using absolute magnitude. A star’s absolute magnitude is defined to be
equal to the apparent magnitude that the star would have if it were
viewed from exactly 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years) away.

A Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram) shows the relationship

between a star’s surface temperature and brightness. The main
components are shown in the diagram on the right.

Cosmology

The Big Bang theory states that the universe expanded outwards from a single point. Evidence for this
theory includes:
• Red shift
The red shift of light from galaxies shows that they are all moving away from us and that those
which are furthest away are moving the fastest, suggesting that the universe was formed from
an explosion at a single point, evidence for the Big Bang.
• Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
o Just after the Big Bang, lots of short wavelength radiation should have been released. This
radiation, as the universe expanded over time, would have been stretched to become
microwaves.
o The fact that there is cosmic microwave background radiation present wherever you point a
telescope in the sky provides evidence for the Big Bang. As the Big Bang theory is currently
the only theory which accounts for all the experimental evidence, it is the most accepted
model.

If a wave source is moving relative to an observer, there will be a change in the observed frequency
and wavelength due to the doppler effect. An example of this is when the siren of an ambulance is
high-pitched as it approaches you, and low-pitched as it goes away.
Change in waavelength Velocity of a galaxy
=
Reference wavelength Speed of light
λ − λ0 Δλ v
or, = =
λ0 λ0 c

Doppler shift is responsible for the red-shift of light from galaxies which are moving away from Earth,
which is when the wavelength of the light coming from them increases. The faster it is moving, the
more its light is red-shifted.

Page | 31 Animesh Sir, BISC