Ratio and Proportion

Ratio - comparison of two numbers a and b, where b x 0, and expressed as "a to b", or "a:b", or
''a/b".

Proportion - a statement of equality between two ratios

Given two equal ratios, one comparing a to b and another comparing c to d, the proportion
may be expressed thus: a : b c : d, or alternatively, a/b = c/d.

In either of the above forms, a and d are referred to as extremes, while b and are referred to
as the means.

Note: If a/b = c/d, its alternation (a/c = b/d) and inversion (b/a = d/c) are both true provided a,
b, c, d < 0.

Finding the missing term of a proportion - As ratios may be treated as fractions and proportions as
equations relating two equivalent fractions, then a missing to of a proportion may be found by
equating the cross products and solving for the unknown. Stated differently, the product of the means
equals the product of the extremes, In symbols, given the proportion a : b c : d, ad = bc.
e.g. Find k in 3 : 5 :: k: 130
Solution: ad = bc
3(30) =
5k k =
18

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA

A. Properties of Real Numbers

1. Closure Property - For any real numbers a and b, a + b and a x b are also real numbers
2. Commutative Property - For any real numbers a and b, a+ b = b + a and a x b = b x a.
3. Associative Property - For any real numbers a, b, and c, (a+ b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a x
b) x c = a
x (b x c)
4. Existence of Identity Elements - For any real number a, there exist real numbers 0 and 1, such that
a + 0 = a and a x 1 = a.
5. Existence of Inverses - For any real number a, there exists a -a such that a + -a = 0, and a 1/a
such that a x 1/a = 1.
6. Distributive Property - For any real numbers a, b and c, a(b + c) = ab + ac.

B. Properties of Equality
1. Reflexive - if a is a real number, a = a.
2. Symmetric - if a and b are real numbers and a = b, then b = a.
3. Transitive - if a, b and c are real numbers and a = b and b = c, then a = c.

C. Some Basic Terms

1. Variable - any symbol that is used to represent an element of a set. e.g. x, y
2. Domain - the set of all elements represented by a particular variable
3. Constant - a symbol with only one element in its variable. e.g. 3, -2,
4. Algebraic expression - a constant, a variable, or any combination of constants and variables
involving indicated operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power, or
extraction of a root) on them.
5. Polynomial - an algebraic expression consisting only of non-negative integer powers of variables,
and with no variable in a denominator. Among the examples of the algebraic expression above,
only the last is not polynomial
6. Term of a polynomial - a constant or a constant multiplied by non-negative integer powers of
variables. A polynomial with only 1 item is monomial, polynomial with 2 is a binomial and a
polynomial with 3 is a trinomial. 7. Numerical Coefficient - that constant that is multiplied by the
non-negative powers of variables in a term.
8. Literal Coefficient - the non-negative powers of variables in a term
9. Similar terms - terms with the same literal coefficient. If the terms as not similar, they are said to
be dissimilar.
10. Degree of a term - sum of the exponents of all variable factors of a term
11. Degree of a polynomial - degree of that term of the polynomial with the highest degree
D. Assessments
 Performance Task (by Pair):
Brainstorm with your study buddy and create five (5) short word problems related to any of discussed
concepts:
Number system
Operations on Integers
Prime Factorization
Fractions
Decimals
Ratio and Proportion
Elementary Algebra
Then, write your solutions and answers on a yellow pad paper.
 CLARENDONCOLLEGE

Odiong, Roxas, Oriental Mindoro

Course / Course Code Mathematics, Science and Technology
Lecturer GILBERT E. GONZALES
Module No. & Title Module 2: Contemporary Mathematics
Duration of Study Week 2-5
A Introduction
.
This module provides a review of the definitions, formulas, operations, postulates, and theorems in
Geometry and
Statistics.
B. Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able to:
1) show a working knowledge of basic terms and concepts in
1. lines and curves, perpendicular and parallel lines
2. angles, angle properties
3. special triangles and quadrilaterals
4. polygons
2) solve problems involving the basic terms and concepts in plane geometry.
3) show mastery and knowledge of basic terms and concepts in statistics and probability
C. Lecture Notes
Geometry BASIC DEFINITIONS

Undefined terms: the basic geometric concepts for which no definitions are given. These are the
points, lines and planes.
Collinear points: points that lie on the same line.
Coplanar points: points that lie on the same plane.
Space: the set of all points
Line segment: a part of a line consisting of two endpoints and all the points in
between them. Ray: a part of a line having one endpoint and extending
infinitely' in one direction
Opposite rays: rays with a common endpoint but extending in opposite directions.
Congruent segments: Two segments having the same measure or length
Angle: formed by two non-collinear rays with a common endpoint. The two rays are the sides of the
angle. The common endpoint of the two rays is the vertex of the angle.

POSTULATES
Space contains at least 4 noncoplanar points.
Every plane contains at least three noncollinear points.
Every line contains at least two points.
Two points determine a line.
Three noncollinear points determine a plane,
If two points are in a plane, then the line containing the points are in the same plane.
If two lines intersect, then their intersection is a point.
If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

POLYGONS
Polygon: a closed plane figure formed by fitting together segments end to end with each segment
intersecting exactly two others.
Diagonal of a polygon: a line segment that connects two nonconsecutive
vertices Convex polygon: no diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Concave polygon: at least one diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Equilateral polygon: all the sides have equal lengths.
Equiangular polygon: all the angles have equal measure.
Regular polygon: it is both equilateral and equiangular.
Interior angles of a polygon: the angles formed by the sides of a polygon.
Exterior angles of a polygon: the angles formed in the exterior of the polygon when its sides are
extended.

THEOREMS
Angle-Sum Theorems for Triangles: The sum of the measures of the three angles of any triangle is
180°.
Angle-Sum Theorems for Quadrilaterals: The sum of the measures of the fourangles of any
quadrilateral is 360°

Angle-Sum Theorems for Polygons: The sum (s) of the measures of the interior angles of any
polygon with n sides is given by s = (n - 2)180°.
Exterior Angle Theorem for Polygons: The sum of the measures of
the exterior angles of a convex polygon (one at each vertex) is 180°.

TRIANGLES

Classifying Triangles According to Sides

a. Scalene: No two of its sides are congruent.
b. Isosceles: At least two of its sides are congruent. The two congruent sides are the legs. The
third side is called the base. The angle opposite the base is the vertex. The angles adjacent to
the base are the base angles. c. Equilateral: All of its sides are congruent.

Classifying Triangles According to

Angles a. Acute: all of its angles
are acute.
b. Right: has one right angle. The hypotenuse is the longest side. The legs are the
other two sides. c. Obtuse: One of its angles is obtuse.
d. Equiangular: all of its angles are congruent.

Secondary Parts of a Triangle

Altitude of a triangle: a segment from a vertex perpendicular to the line that contains the opposite
side.
Median of a triangle: a segment from one vertex to the midpoint of the
opposite side. Concurrent lines: Three or more lines.that meet at the same
point.

QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon.

Kinds of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if one of the following is satisfied:
1. Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
2. Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent.
3. Both pairs of opposite angles are congruent.
4. Consecutive angles are supplementary.
5. Diagonals bisect each other.
6. Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent triangles.

A quadrilateral is a rectangle if and only if it is a parallelogram and one of the following is satisfied:
1. It has four right angles.
2. Its diagonals are congruent.

A quadrilateral is a rhombus if and only if it is a parallelogram and one of the

following is satisfied: 1, Its sides are all congruent.
2. Its diagonals are perpendicular.
3. Its diagonals bisect the angles of the quadrilateral.

A quadrilateral is a square if it is both a rhombus and a rectangle.

A quadrilateral is a trapezoid if it has a pair of parallel opposite sides. The parallel sides are the
bases and the nonparallel sides are its legs. If the legs are congruent, the trapezoid is said to be an
isosceles trapezoid.
A trapezoid is isosceles if it satisfies one of the following:
1. Its legs are congruent
2. Each pair of base angles is congruent.
3. Diagonals are congruent.

CIRCLES
Circle: the set of all points in a plane at a given distance (radius) from a given point (center) in the
plane.
Radius: the line segment from the center to any point
of the circle. Chord:a line segment whose endpoints
lie on the circle Diameter: a chord containing the
center.
Secant: a line that intersects the circle in two points.
Tangent a line lying on the same plane as the circle that intersects the circle in exactly one point.
Point of Tangency: The point where the tangent touches the circle.
Congruent circles: two or more circles having the same radius.
Concentric circles: two or more coplanar circles sharing the same center.

RELATIONS INVOLVING SEGMENTS AND ANGLES

Segment-Addition Postulate..
Point Y is between X and Z if and only if X, Y and Z are collinear and XY +YZ = XZ.
Midpoint of the segment: A point that bisects a segment, or divides a segment into two congruent
segments.
Bisector of the line segment: A ray, line or line segment that contains the midpoint.
Angle bisector: A ray that contains the vertex and divides the angle into two congruent parts

PERPENDICULAR LINES AND BISECTOR OF A LINE

Perpendicular lines: two lines that intersect at right angles.

Perpendicular bisector of a segment: the line which is perpendicular to the segment at its
midpoint. Theorem: The shortest segment from a point to the lines is the perpendicular
segment.

ANGLE PAIRS
Adjacent angles: two angles with a common vertex, a common side, and no common interior points.
Supplementary angles: two angles whose measures have a Sum of 180°.
Complementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of 90°.
Vertical angles: Two angles are vertical if and only if their sides form two pairs of opposite rays and
their angles are nonadjacent formed by two intersecting lines.
Linear pair: two angles which are adjacent and supplementary.

Theorems:
Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
Complements of congruent angles are
congruent. Vertical angles are congruent.

ANGLES AND SIDES OF A TRIANGLE

Exterior angle of a triangle: an angle which forms a linear pair with one of the triangle's
interior angles. Remote interior angles: two interior angles of the triangle not adjacent to
the exterior angle.

Theorems:
The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of th measures of the two remote
interior angles.
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the long! of the third side.
In a triangle, if one side is longer than the other side, the angle opposite th longer side is
the larger angle, In a triangle, if one angle Is larger than the other angle, the side
opposite th larger angle is the longer side.

PARALLEL LINES AND TRANSVERSALS

Intersecting lines: coplanar lines having a point in common

Perpendicular lines: lines that intersect at right angles
Parallel lines: coplanar lines that do not intersect