Principles of Physics

Chapter 2: Vectors and Scalars

Dr. Rania Gamal

 Table of Contents

● Vectors and Scalars Definition.

● Types of Vectors.
● Vector Operations.
● Vector Components.
● Multiplying Vectors.
➢ Dot Product
➢ Cross Product
● Examples.
Vectors and scalars definition
 Vectors and scalars definition
Scalars
Definition: A scalar quantity is defined as a physical quantity that has only magnitude
(size) and no direction.
Examples:
• Mass: 50 kg
• Temperature: 30°C
• Time: 5 seconds
• Distance: 10 meters
• Speed: 60 km/h

Mathematical Properties:
• Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided by other scalars using simple arithmetic.
• Example: If two distances are given as 5 𝑚 and 10 𝑚, their sum is 5 𝑚 + 10 𝑚 = 15 𝑚.
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 Vectors and scalars definition

Vectors
Definition: A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Examples:
• Displacement: 5 m north
• Velocity: 20 m/s east
• Force: 10 N at 45°
• Acceleration: 9.8 m/s² downward

Representation:
• Graphical Representation: Vectors are represented graphically by arrows. The length of the arrow represents the
magnitude, and the direction of the arrow represents the vector's direction.
• Symbolic Representation: Vectors are often represented by boldface letters (e.g., v for velocity) or by letters with
Page - 5 an arrow on top (e.g., 𝑣).
Ԧ
Types of Vectors
Types of Vectors

● Parallel Vectors ● Anti-parallel Vectors

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Types of Vectors

● Equal Vectors ● Negative Vectors

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Types of Vectors

● Collinear Vectors ● Co-initial Vectors

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Types of Vectors

● Co-terminus Vectors ● Coplanar Vectors

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Vector Operations
Addition of Vectors

● Vectors are added using either the tip-to-tail method or the parallelogram method.
• Tip-to-tail method: Place the tail of the second vector at the tip of the first vector.
• Parallelogram method: Two vectors are drawn as adjacent sides of a parallelogram; the diagonal gives
the resultant vector.

● Graphical Addition: The resultant vector (sum of vectors) is found by drawing a

vector from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last vector.
● Analytical Addition: Vectors can be added by resolving them into components
(more on this below).

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Addition of Vectors

● Example 1: Find 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵, where 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ and 𝐵 = 5𝑖Ƹ + 10𝑗Ƹ ?

Solution:
𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 7𝑖Ƹ + 13𝑗Ƹ

● Example 2: Find 𝐶Ԧ + 𝐷 and the magnitude, where 𝐶Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ + 4𝐾෠ and 𝐷 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 6𝐾෠ ?
Solution:
𝐶Ԧ + 𝐷 = 3𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ + 10𝐾෠

𝐶Ԧ + 𝐷 = 3 2 + −1 2 + 10 2 = 10.5

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Subtraction of Vectors

● Subtracting a vector is equivalent to adding its negative. The negative of a vector has
the same magnitude but the opposite direction.

● Example: To subtract vector 𝐵 from 𝐴, you add 𝐴Ԧ + −𝐵 .

● Find 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 and the magnitude, where 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ and 𝐵 = 3𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑗Ƹ ?

Solution:
𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 = −𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ
𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = −1 2 + 3 2 = 3.16
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Example
෡ and 𝑩 = 𝟒𝒊Ƹ − 𝟖𝒋Ƹ − 𝒌.
● If 𝑨 = 𝟐𝒊Ƹ + 𝟒𝒋Ƹ − 𝟑𝒌 ෡
Find, 𝑨 + 𝑩, 𝑨 − 𝑩, 𝟐𝑨 − 𝟑𝑩 and 𝑨 − 𝟒𝑩?

Solution:
● 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 6𝑖Ƹ − 4𝑗Ƹ − 4𝑘෠
● 𝑨 − 𝑩 = −2𝑖Ƹ + 12𝑗Ƹ − 2𝑘෠
● 𝟐𝑨 − 𝟑𝑩 = 2 2𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ − 3𝑘෠ − 3(4𝑖Ƹ − 8𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘)
෠

2𝐴 − 3𝐵 = 4𝑖Ƹ + 8𝑗Ƹ − 6𝑘෠ − 12𝑖Ƹ − 24𝑗Ƹ − 3𝑘෠ = −8𝑖Ƹ + 32𝑗Ƹ − 3𝑘෠

● 𝑨 − 𝟒𝑩 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ − 3𝑘෠ − 4(4𝑖Ƹ − 8𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘)
෠

𝐴 − 4𝐵 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ − 3𝑘෠ − 16𝑖Ƹ − 32𝑗Ƹ − 4𝑘෠ = −14𝑖Ƹ + 36𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠

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Example

● A vector 𝐴Ԧ has a component of (10) in the +𝑥 direction, a component of (10) in the

+y direction, and a component of (5) in the +z direction. The magnitude of this
vector is :
Zero 15 25 225

Solution:
𝐴Ԧ = 10iƸ + 10j Ƹ + 5k෠
𝐴Ԧ = 10 2 + 10 2 + 5 2 = 15

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Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars

When a vector is multiplied by a scalar, only its magnitude changes, not its

direction (unless the scalar is negative, which reverses the direction).

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Vector Components
 Vector Components

Component Form: Any vector can be resolved into its components along mutually
perpendicular axes (usually x and y axes in 2D, or x, y, and z axes in 3D).
• For a vector 𝐴Ԧ with magnitude 𝐴 and direction 𝜃, the components are:
• 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (the horizontal or x-component)
• 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (the vertical or y-component)

• Unit Vectors: Vectors in component form are often expressed using unit vectors 𝑖Ƹ
(along the x-axis), 𝑗Ƹ (along the y-axis), and 𝑘෠ (along the z-axis):
෡
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑨𝒚 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑨𝒛 𝒌

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Magnitude of a Vector
Magnitude of a Vector

The magnitude (or length) of a vector is found using the Pythagorean theorem. For a 2D

vector 𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑨𝒚 𝒋Ƹ ​, the magnitude is:

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦

In 3D, the magnitude is:

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧

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 Example
● Find out the scalar and vector quantity from the given list?
Force, Speed, Electric field, Angular Momentum, Magnetic Moment, Temperature, Linear Momentum, Average
Velocity.
Solution:
From the given list,
• Scalar Quantities : Speed, Temperature.
• Vector Quantities : Force, Electric field, Angular Momentum, Magnetic Moment, Linear Momentum, Average
Velocity.
● Find the magnitude of v = i + 4j?
Solution:

𝑉 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 4

𝑉 = 12 + 42

𝑉 = 17
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Example
● In figure find the component?
Solution:
𝐴𝑥 = 10 cos 30 = 8.66
𝐴𝑦 = 10 sin 30 = 5
𝐴Ԧ = 8.66𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ
● In figure find the component?
Solution:
𝐴𝑥 = 10 cos 150 = −8.66
𝐴𝑦 = 10 sin 150 = 5
𝐴Ԧ = −8.66𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ

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Example

● In figure find the component?

Solution:
𝐴𝑥 = 10 cos 210 = −8.66
𝐴𝑦 = 10 sin 210 = −5
𝐴Ԧ = −8.66𝑖Ƹ − 5𝑗Ƹ
● In figure find the component?
Solution:
𝐴𝑥 = 10 cos 330 = 8.66
𝐴𝑦 = 10 sin 330 = −5
𝐴Ԧ = 8.66𝑖Ƹ − 5𝑗Ƹ

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 Example
● If 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑉𝑦 𝑗Ƹ find the magnitude and the direction?
Solution:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑥 2 + 𝑉𝑦 2
𝑉𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑥
● If 𝐴Ԧ = 3𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ find the magnitude and the direction?
Solution:
𝑉 = 32 + 42 = 5
4
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 53.1°
3
● If 𝑉 = −3𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ find the magnitude and the direction?
Solution:
𝑉 = (−3)2 +(4)2 = 5
4
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = −53.1°
−3
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 180 − 53.1 = 126.9°

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Unit Vectors
Unit Vectors

● Definition: A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1 and indicates direction
only. It is often used to represent the direction of a vector.
● Common unit vectors are 𝑖,Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘෠ for the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

● Any vector 𝐴Ԧ can be written as the product of its magnitude and a unit vector 𝐴መ in the
Ԧ
direction of 𝐴:

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ 𝐴መ

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Dot Product
 Dot Product
● The dot product of vectors is also called the scalar product
of vectors. The resultant of the dot product of the vectors is
vectors

a scalar value. Dot Product of vectors is equal to the product

of the magnitudes of the two vectors, and the cosine of the
angle between the two vectors. The resultant of the dot
product of two vectors lie in the same plane of the two
vectors. The dot product may be a positive real number or a
negative real number.

● Let a and b be two non-zero vectors, and θ be the included

angle of the vectors. Then the scalar product or dot product
is denoted by a.b, which is defined as:
𝑎Ԧ ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎Ԧ 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Here, 𝑎Ԧ is the magnitude of 𝑎Ԧ , 𝑏 is the magnitude of 𝑏 , and
θ is the angle between them.
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Dot Product
● For the scalar multiplication of vectors, the two vectors are expressed in terms of unit vectors, i, j, k,
along the x, y, z axes, then the scalar product is obtained as follows:
● If 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑎1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏1 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑐1 𝑘෠ and 𝐵 = 𝑎2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏2 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑐2 𝑘෠ , then
● 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵= (𝑎1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏1 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑐1 𝑘෠ )(𝑎2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏2 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑐2 𝑘)
෠

● 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵= 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑗 Ƹ + 𝑎1 𝑐2 𝑖 Ƹ ∙ 𝑘෠ + 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑗 Ƹ ∙ 𝑖 Ƹ + 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑗 Ƹ ∙ 𝑗 Ƹ + 𝑏1 𝑐2 𝑗 Ƹ ∙ 𝑘෠ +
𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑘෠ ∙ 𝑖 Ƹ + 𝑐1 𝑏2 𝑘෠ ∙ 𝑗 Ƹ + (𝑐1 𝑐2 )(𝑘෠ ∙ 𝑘෠ )
● A ∙ B= a1 a2 + b1 b2+ 𝑐1 𝑐2 .
● Where : 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑖Ƹ = 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑗Ƹ = 𝑘෠ ∙ 𝑘෠ = 1
𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑗Ƹ = 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑘෠ = 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑘෠ = 0

𝑨∙𝑩=𝑩∙𝑨

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Example

● Find 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵, where 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ − 3𝑘෠ and 𝐵 = 4𝑖Ƹ − 8𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠ ?

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = 8 − 32 + 3 = −21

● Find 𝐶Ԧ ∙ 𝐷, where 𝐶Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ − 3𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ and 𝐷 = 4𝑖Ƹ + 𝑘෠ ?

𝐶Ԧ ∙ 𝐷 = 8 + 0 + 1 = 9

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Cross Product
Cross Product

● Cross Product is also called a Vector Product. Cross product is a form of vector
multiplication, performed between two vectors of different nature or kinds. When two
vectors are multiplied with each other and the multiplication is also a vector quantity,
then the resultant vector is called the cross product of two vectors or the vector
product. The resultant vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the two given
vectors.

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Cross Product
● Let us assume that 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 are two vectors, such that 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑎1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏1 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑐1 𝑘෠ and 𝐵 = 𝑎2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑏2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑐2 𝑘෠
then by using determinations, we could find the cross-product multiplication of vectors, using the
following matrix notation.
𝑖Ƹ −𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
● Ԧ
𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

● The cross-product multiplication of vectors is also represented using the cross-product formula as:
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 − 𝑗Ƹ 𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1 + 𝑘(𝑎෠ 1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )
Note: 𝑖,Ƹ 𝑗,Ƹ and 𝑘෠ are the unit vectors in the direction of x axis, y-axis, and z -axis, respectively.

𝑨 × 𝑩 = −𝑩 × 𝑨
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Example

● Find 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵, where 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠ and 𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑗Ƹ + 3𝑘෠ ?

Solution:

𝑖Ƹ −𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 2 3 −1 = 𝑖Ƹ 3 × 3 − (−1 × 2) − 𝑗Ƹ 2 × 3 − −1 × 1 ෠ × 2 − (1 × 3))
+ 𝑘(2
1 2 3
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ 9 + 2 − 𝑗Ƹ 6 + 1 + 𝑘෠ 4 − 3 = 11𝑖Ƹ − 7𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠

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Example

● Find 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 and 𝐵 × 𝐴Ԧ , where 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 𝑘෠ and 𝐵 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ ?

Solution:

𝑖Ƹ −𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
Ԧ
𝐴×𝐵 = 2 0 1 = 𝑖Ƹ 0 − 1 − 𝑗Ƹ 0 − 2 + 𝑘෠ 2 − 0 = −𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑘෠
2 1 0
𝐵 × 𝐴Ԧ = −𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵

𝐵 × 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑗Ƹ − 2𝑘෠

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Applications in Physics
 Applications in Physics

● Kinematics:
Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration are vectors. Understanding their vector nature
helps solve problems in 2D and 3D motion.
● Forces:
Forces are vectors, and the resultant force on an object is the vector sum of all forces
acting on it.
● Electric and Magnetic Fields:
Electric and magnetic fields are vector quantities, and their effects depend on both
magnitude and direction.
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Summary

● Scalars have only magnitude, while vectors have both magnitude and direction.
● Vectors can be added and subtracted geometrically and algebraically using
components.
● The dot product gives a scalar and is used in calculating work, while the cross
product gives a vector and is used in calculating torque.

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Problems
Problems

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Problems

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Problems

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Problems

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Problems

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