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 Step by Step®

Oral Radiology

System requirement:
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 Step by Step®
Oral Radiology
Ram Kumar Srivastava
BSC BDS MDS LLB

Professor and Head

Chandra Dental College and Hospital
Barabanki, UP, India
Ex-Acting Principal
Vinayaka Mission Dental College
Sitapur, UP, India
Ex-Principal
Career Dental College, Lucknow, UP, India
Suyash Dental College, Gorakhpur, UP, India

Foreword
VB Sahai

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.

Lucknow • St Louis (USA) • Panama City (Panama) • London (UK)
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Kochi • Kolkata • Mumbai • Nagpur
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Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd
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Step by Step® Oral Radiology

© 2011, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication and photo CD-ROM should be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author and the
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First Edition: 2011

ISBN 978-93-5025-085-3
Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit
Printed at
 To
My parents
Krishna and Prithwi Nath
whose encouragement and sacrifice
helped to take it all possible.
Foreword
In dentistry, as in medicine, a
thorough pre-treatment exami-
nation is usually incomplete
unless the clinical findings are
supplemented by visual infor-
mation obtained from images
produced through the use of
ionizing radiation.
In today’s modern dental
practice, examination of the teeth and their supporting
osseous structures without the use of radiographs is
unimaginable. Indeed, two-dimensional radiographic
images of teeth and bones of the jaws have become
the lynchpin on which the diagnosis of all oro-dental
diseases hinges. In addition to radiography, MRI,
scintigraphy and sonography have also become
indispensable tools in the hands of a discerning dental
diagnostician.
Although dental radiography has been in vogue
for over a century, the importance of both patient and
operator protection is often overlooked in the dental
environment. Modern advances, e.g. digital radio-
graphy and radiovisiography has made a significant
contribution in reducing exposure, saving time and
improving quality of the images.
This timely text on “Oral Radiology” authored by
Dr Ram Kumar Srivastava is a step forward in
fulfilling the lacuna being felt by dental students for
an “easy-to-understand” book on this subject. It will
viii STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
also find its niche in the education and training of
dental hygienists, radiology technicians and dental
assistants. I am sure that practicing dentists of all
specialties will also find this book useful as it provides
important advice and clinical tips on radiographic
techniques and diagnosis.
I congratulate the author on his endeavor and wish
him success.

VB Sahai
Vice-Chancellor
Subharti University
Meerut, UP, India
Preface
Preface
The aims and objectives of the book Step by Step Oral
Radiology is to provide a basic and practical knowledge
in the subject of dental radiography required by
undergraduate and postgraduate dental students. I
have simplified and condensed very large and
complex subject. The book is containing the text along
with the diagrams and photographs for better
understanding of the topics.
I have covered all the diseases related with the
teeth and jaws and their normal appearance in
radiographs.
Imaging in dentistry is now recently introduced
as a new technology into everyday clinical practice.
Digital imaging including cone beam CT, MRI, ultra
sonography, scintigraphy is included in the book.
This book is according to the syllabus of Dental
Council of India. The contents of the book satisfy the
requirement of most undergraduate and postgraduate
dental students from examination point of view.
I hope this book gives a clear, logical and easily
understandable text that make a positive contribution
to the teaching and learning of dental radiology.

Ram Kumar Srivastava

Acknowledgments
This book has only been possible with enormous
amount of help and encouragement from my family
and colleagues.
Firstly, I would like to give grateful thanks to
Dr Anil Kohli who has given advise in specific
chapters. My special thanks also to Dr PN Awasthi,
Secretary DCI and Dr VB Sahai, Vice-Chancellor,
Subharti University, Meerut, for their help and
comments. I am fortunate to work with such able and
efficient personalities.
I am grateful to Dr Ashish Asthana, Dr Mohit Seth,
Dr Vikram Ahuja and students of Career Dental
College, Lucknow, Chandra Dental College, Barabanki
and Dental faculty of CCMV Lucknow for diagrams,
photographs and help in the production process.
Special thanks to my wife Surabhi, son Syamantak,
Swapnil and brothers Sudhir and Krishan without
their help this project would never have been
completed.
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Atomic Structure 5
3. X-ray Image Characteristics 35
4. Dose Units and Dosimetry 53
5. Biological Effects 57
6. Factors Controlling X-ray Beam 73
7. Film Mounting 85
8. Infection Control in Dental Radiography 93
9. Characteristics of Radiographic Film 103
10. Film Processing 107
11. Dental X-ray Film Composition 137
12. Extraoral Radiography 149
13. Radiographic Techniques 167
14. Bitewing and Occlusal Radiography 205
15. Panoramic Radiography (Pantomography) 221
16. Cephalometric Radiography 239
17. Radiography of the Temporomandibular
Joint 249
18. Normal Anatomical Structures in Radiographs:
Intraoral Radiographs 259
xiv STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
19. Maxillofacial Imaging 283
20. Benign and Malignant Tumors of the Jaw 315
21. Diseases of Bone 323
22. Preoperative Radiographic Assessment
of Impacted Mandibular Third Molars
and Canines 341
23. Radiopaque Lesions in the Jaws 357
24. Radiolucent Lesions of the Jaws 375
25. Developmental Anomalies of Teeth
and Facial Skeleton 397
26. Dental Caries 417
27. Periodontal Disease 427
Index 439
Chapter 1

Introduction
 2 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

The discovery of X-ray in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

started with the history of radiography. Roentgen used a
vacuum tube, an electric current and special screens covered
with a material that glowed (fluorescent) when exposed to
radiation. He discovered a glow or fluorescence which was
coming from screens when cathode rays (streams of
electrons) passing from one end of the tube to the other. He
realized that something from the tube was striking the
screens and causing glow and named this unknown rays as
X-rays.
Johana Wilhelm Hittorf, a German physicist, used the
vacuum tube to study fluorescence. In 1870, William
Crookers, an English chemist, designed the tube which was
later known as the Hittorf-Crookes tube. In 1913, William D
Coolidge, an electrical engineer, developed the first hot
cathode X-ray tube, a high vacuum tube that contained a
tungsten filament. Weston Price introduced the bisecting
technique in 1904, and the paralleling technique was first
introduced by C Edmund Kells in 1896.
X-ray forms part of the electromagnetic spectrum at the
high energy end, the visible light in the middle and
microwaves and radio waves at the low energy end. The
X-rays are energetic enough to ionize atoms and break
molecular bonds as they penetrate tissues and are therefore,
called ionizing radiation. X-rays are produced when high-
energy electrons strikes a high atomic number material.
This interaction is produced within an X-ray tube. A high
voltage is passed across two tungsten terminals. One
terminal (cathode) is heated until it liberates free electrons.
When a high voltage is applied across the terminals, the
electrons accelerate toward the anode at high speed. On
hitting the anode target, X-rays are produced.
 INTRODUCTION 3
X-ray picture is produced due to interaction of the ionizing
radiation with tissues as it passes through the body. Tissues
of different densities are displayed as distinct areas depending
on the amount of radiation absorbed. The four different
densities are: gas (air), fat, soft tissue and fluid and calcified
structure (bone). Air absorbs the least amount of
X-ray and, therefore, appears black (radiolucent) on
radiograph, whereas calcified structures (bone) absorb the
most, resulting in white radiopacities, soft tissue and fluid
appear grey on a radiograph.
 Chapter 2

Atomic Structure
 6 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

The atom is a miniature solar system consisting largely of

empty space. At the center of the system is the nucleus
(approx. 10–15 m diameter) and around the center the electrons
move in orbits (approx. 10–11 m diameter). The simplest atom
(hydrogen), consists of one positively charged particle (a
proton) and one electron in orbit.
Matter is composed of atoms that occupy space. The atom
can further be broken down into elementary components
consisting of the electron, proton and neutron. All known
substances (living and nonliving) are from these elemental
components. Combinations of these elemental particles
determine the atomic structures. The atomic number, based
on the number of protons, is used to classify each element.
The number of protons (positive charged) in the nucleus
is called the atomic number, Z which is equals to the
number of orbiting electrons in the neutral atom. Since a
proton is around 1840 times heavier than an electron,
practically all the mass of the atom lies in the nucleus. For
each element, except hydrogen, the nucleus contains both
protons and neutrons. Protons (positive charged) and
neutrons (neutral charged) collectively form the nucleus
of the atom (Fig. 2.1).
Atomic weights are usually different from the atomic
masses because most naturally occurring elements have a
number of stable isotopes. For example, chlorine consists of a
mixture of two isotopes, chlorine-34 and chlorine-36 having
atomic weight 35.46.

ELECTRON SHELLS
The electrons around the nucleus are located in a few specific
orbits or shells, the nearest to the nucleus is labeled the K
orbit and subsequent ones are given the labels L, M, N, etc.
The K orbit is the one with the least energy but the greatest
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 7

Fig. 2.1: An atom of litium, whose atomic number is 3 and

mass number is 6

binding energy. The K shell is the strongest and requires the

most energy to displace an electron from its orbit. If an electron
is moved from a higher energy shell to a lower one, energy is
released. Each orbit can hold only a limited number of
electrons, the maximum number in the nth orbit is 2n2 (e.g. the
M shell is the third and can only have up to 18 electrons). In
general, the electrons occupy the innermost orbits, but the
outermost shell will never have more than eight electrons
before the next outer shell starts to fill.

IONIZATION AND EXCITATION

At the atomic level, the atom is said to be ionized when an
electron is completely removed from the electrostatic field
around the nucleus, and the process is known as ionization
(Fig. 2.2). If the electron is only partially removed, i.e. moved
from one orbit to a more distant orbit, the atom is said to be in
an excited state and the process is known as excitation. The
ionized or excited atom will resume its stable state by
attracting an electron into the vacant space in the orbit
 8 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

Fig. 2.2: Ionization process when X-ray photon interacts with a

neutral atom to form negative charged electron and positive
charged proton

concerned. This inward movement of the electron through

the shell structure is accompanied by the emission of
electromagnetic radiation, which may be visible as
fluorescence in the discharge tube, or invisible X-radiation,
depending on the difference in the binding energies of the
two orbits. Excitation and ionization may be initiated by high-
energy particles or by electromagnetic radiations.
Normally, an atom is in a non-ionized state with an equal
number of protons and electrons. When this balanced state is
disturbed, the displaced orbital electron and the atom from
which it originated is called an ion pair. This situation can
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 9
occur with electron bombardment of matter, X-ray
bombardment of matter, thermionic emission with electron
release, chemically and many others. If the ionized electron
is moved to a higher orbit, this is called excitation. In an excited
state, the displaced electron returns to its original orbit or is
replaced by another electron. Often the additional energy
needed to ionize the atom is released as photons of
electromagnetic, heat or chemical energy.

RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY

Radiation is the emission and propagation of energy through
space or a substance in the form of waves or particles. The
terms ‘radioactivity and radiation’ are sometimes make us
confuse, so remember that they are not the same thing.
Radioactivity is defined as the process by which certain
unstable atoms or elements undergo spontaneous
disintegration, or decay, in an effort to attain a more balanced
nuclear state. A substance is considered radioactive, if it gives
off energy in the form of waves or particles as a result of the
disintegration of atomic nucleus.

IONIZING RADIATION
Ionizing radiation is defined as radiation that is capable of
producing ions by removing or adding an electron to an atom.
Ionizing radiation can be classified into two types: particulate
and electromagnetic.
X-radiation is a high-energy, ionizing electromagnetic
radiation. Like all electromagnetic radiations, X-rays have
properties of both waves and particles. X-rays can be defined
as weightless bundles of energy (photons) without an
electrical charge that travel in waves with a specific frequency
at the speed of light. X-ray photons interact with the materials
they penetrate and cause ionization.
 10 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
PARTICULATE RADIATIONS
These are tiny particles of matter that possess mass and travel
in straight line at high speeds, which transmit kinetic energy
by means of their fast moving small masses.
Types of Particulate Radiation:
(a) Electrons are of two types–
(i) Beta particles are fast moving electrons emitted from
the nucleus of radioactive atoms.
(ii) Cathode rays are streams of high speed electrons that
originate in an X-ray tube.
(b) Protons: These are accelerated particles, such as hydrogen
nuclei with a mass of 1 add a charge of +1.
(c) Neutrons: These are accelerated particles with a mass of 1
and no electrical charge.
(d) Alpha particles: These are emitted from the nuclei of heavy
metals such as He2+.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation is the propagation of wave like
energy (without mass) through space or matter. The energy
in electromagnetic radiations is propagated by oscillating
electric and magnetic fields positioned at right angles to one
another. These radiations are man made or occur naturally,
such as cosmic rays, infrared, high radio waves, radar waves
and microwaves. Electromagnetic radiations are arranged
according to their energies as in the electromagnetic
spectrum. In electromagnetic radiation only high energy
radiations (cosmic rays, gamma rays and X-ray) are capable
of ionization.
Electromagnetic radiations are transmitted in space as
both a particle or quantum and a wave. Hence two theories
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 11
are considered—particle (Quantum) theory and wave
theory.

Particle (Quantum) Theory

The particle theory says that energy travels as packets of
energy called photons or quanta that have neither mass nor
charge that travel as waves at the speed of light.

Wave Theory
The wave theory says that energy travels as two waves, an
electrical and a magnetic wave which travels together at right
angles to each other, at a speed of 3 × 108 meter/second.
The energy in the waves depends on the following
properties:
(a) Velocity: It means the speed of the wave. All electromagnetic
radiations travel as waves at the speed of light (3 × 108
meter/second).
(b) Wavelength: It is the distance between the crest of one
wave and the crest of the next wave. By the wavelength,
the energy and penetrating power of the radiation can
be determined, the shorter the wavelength (i.e. the
distance between the crests), the higher the energy and
ability to penetrate matter. The unit of measuring
wavelength is nanometers (1 × 10–9 meter) for short waves
and in meters for longer waves.
(c) Frequency (Hz): It is the number of wavelengths that
pass a given point in a certain amount of time.
Frequency and wavelengths are inversely related, if the
frequency is high, the wavelength will be short and if
the frequency is low, the wavelength will be long.
X-ray photons are common between 0.1 and 0.5 Å and
10 18 to 1221Hz.
 12 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
Frequency of these rays increases
←
from radio waves to gamma rays

Gamma X-ray UV Visible Infra- TV Radar Micro- Radio

rays light red rays waves waves

Wavelength of these rays increases

→
from gamma rays to radio waves

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Low frequency electromagnetic radiations have a long
wavelengths and less energy while high frequency
electromagnetic radiations have a short wavelength and
more energy.
(d) Amplitude: Amplitude is the height of the wave from this
point to midpoint or through to midpoint.
Electromagnetic energy is arranged in an orderly fashion
according to the wavelength. For medical X-rays this range is
from approximately 0.1 Å to 0.5 Å (0.01 to 0.05 mm). This
energy travels in the form of sine wave-like oscillations at the
speed of light.

TYPES OF X-RAY RADIATION

(a) Primary radiation: Primary radiations are that radiations
which produce at the target of the anode and are the
penetrating X-ray beam. This X-ray beam is known as the
primary beam or useful beam.
(b) Secondary radiation: It is that radiation which is created
when the primary beam interacts with the matter such as
bone, soft tissue and teeth. This radiation is less
penetrating than primary radiation.
(c) Scatter radiation: This radiation is the result of an X-ray
that has been deflected from its path by the interaction
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 13
with the matter. Scatter radiation is detrimental to both
the patient and the operator because this radiation is
deflected in all directions by patient tissues.

Coherent Radiation
This is a type of scattered radiation that may take place when
X-rays interact with matter. Coherent radiation is produced
when a low energy X-ray photon has altered its path by
interaction with the matter and no loss of energy and no
ionization occurs. Only an X-ray photon scattered radiation
is produced.

CONTINUOUS RADIATION SPECTRUM

X-rays are produced whenever high-energy particles are
suddenly slowed in a target. This process is unlikely at low
particle energies but becomes increasingly more probable
at higher energies. The energy lost by the particle appears
directly as a photon of bremsstrahlung radiation (from the
German word bremsen = brake and Strahlung = radiation).
At the atomic level, this braking results from the interaction
between the particle and the electrostatic field near the
nucleus. For particles of a given energy, the deceleration
varies directly with the square of the atomic number, Z, of
the absorber and z, the number of unit-charges on the
particle, and inversely with the mass of the particle, m. Thus
the intensity of bremsstrahlung varies between charged
particles and materials as Z2Z2/m-. It follows that particles of
small mass, such as electrons and positrons, are much better
producers of bremsstrahlung than heavier particles.
Similarly, materials of high atomic number, such as lead and
tungsten, are more efficient producers of bremsstrahlung
than low atomic number material such as plastic and soft
tissue.
 14 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
In the X-ray tube, the fast electron may lose all its
energy in a single interaction with the electric field
around the target nucleus. It is more likely, however,
that it will lose only a part of its energy in that first
interaction and then proceed further, interacting with
other target atoms before coming to rest. It follows that
a beam of electrons interacting with the target will
produce X-ray photons with energies spread over a range
from very small values up to the maximum energy of
the electrons in the beam. Different amounts of energy
are lost by the particles at each bremsstrahlung event.
The maximum energy of the bremsstrahlung will equal
the maximum energy of the particle and corresponds to
the particle losing all its energy in one interaction. The
bremsstrahlung radiation appears as a continuous
spectrum.
The continuous spectrum has a maximum photon energy
(keV) equal to the tube voltage (kV). Photons of maximum
photon energy have the minimum wavelength in the
spectrum. Wavelength is inversely proportional to photon
energy.

PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

Electrons traveling from the filament to the target convert

some of their kinetic energy into X-ray photons by the
formation of bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation
(Fig. 2.3).

BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION
(GENERAL RADIATION)

Bremsstrahlung interactions, the primary source of X-ray

photons from an X-ray tube, are produced by the sudden
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 15

Fig. 2.3: Diagram showing bremsstrahlung radiation and

characteristic radiation

stopping or slowing of high-speed electrons at the target.

When electrons from the filament strike the tungsten target,
X-ray photons are created if the electrons hit a target nucleus
directly or if their path takes them close to a nucleus. If a
high-speed electron directly hits the nucleus of a target atom,
all its kinetic energy is transformed into a single X-ray photon.
The energy of the resultant photon (in keV) is numerically
equal to the energy of the electron. This in turn is equal to the
kilovoltage applied across the X-ray tube at the instant of its
passage.
Most high-speed electrons, however, have near or wide
misses with atomic nuclei. In these interactions, a negatively
charged high-speed electron is attracted toward the positively
charged nuclei and loses some of its velocity. This deceleration
 16 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

causes the electron to lose some kinetic energy, which is given

off in the form of many new photons. The closer the high-
speed electron approaches the nuclei, the greater is the
electrostatic attraction on the electron, the braking effect and
the energy of the resulting bremsstrahlung photons.
Bremsstrahlung interactions generate X-ray photons
with a continuous spectrum of energy. The energy of an
X-ray beam may be described by identifying the peak
operating voltage (in kVp). A dental X-ray machine
operating at a peak voltage of 70,000 volts (70 kVp), for
examples, applies a fluctuating voltage of as much as
70 kVp across the tube. This tube therefore produces
X-ray photons with energies ranging to a maximum of
70,000 eV (70 keV).

CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION

Characteristic radiation occurs when an electron from the

filament displaces an electron from a shell of a tungsten
target atom, thereby ionizing the atom. When this happens,
a higher energy electron in an outer shell of the tungsten
atom is quickly attracted to the void in the deficient inner
shell.
When the outer-shell electron replaces the displaced
electron, a photon is emitted with energy equivalent to the
difference in the two orbital binding energies. Characteristic
radiation from the shell occurs only above 70 kVp with a
tungsten target and occurs as discrete increments compared
with bremsstrahlung radiation. The energies of
characteristic photons are a function of the energy levels
of various electron orbital levels and hence are
characteristic of the target atoms. Characteristic radiation
is only a minor source of radiation from an X-ray tube.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 17
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONVERSION TO X-RADIATION
Alternating current (AC) is converted into direct current (DC)
by an electrical transformer. This direct current is then put
into motion (Kinetic energy) from cathode to anode in the X-
ray tube to produce heat (thermal energy) and
X-radiation (radiant energy).
The filament (cathode) of the X-ray tube is heated to
incandescence causing electrons to "boil off" in a process
known as thermionic emission. The electrons energy is
converted into heat and X-ray energy.
The milliampere are setting determines the number of
released electrons available for interaction. The range of the
applied voltage (kilo volt) determines the wavelength and
thus the energy of the X-ray photons. The relation of voltage
and amperage to resistance can be expressed by Ohm's law,
which states that:
V
I=
R
Where I = amperage, V = voltage and R= resistance.

ELECTRON INTERACTION WITH THE ANODE OF

THE X-RAY TUBE
More than 99% of the energy is converted into thermal energy
(heat). The remaining energy is divided among
bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation.
Bremsstrahlung radiation is also known as general
radiation, the continuous septrum or white radiation.
Production of bremsstrahlung radiation is from the "braking"
action that occurs as the electrons interact with the anode.
This process involves electrons that generally pass by the
heavy nuclei of the metallic atoms in the target material. The
attraction between the negatively charged electrons and the
 18 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
positively charged nuclei causes the electrons to be deflected
and decelerated from their original path and to lose some of
their energies. Since energy cannot be destroyed, the energies
lost by the electrons are transformed and emitted as X-ray
photons.
The considerable rate of deceleration causes the emission
of short wavelength radiation in the form of X-rays. As this
braking action varies, so does the intensity of the resultant X-
ray energy. In the 70 to 100 kVp ranges, using tungsten anode,
these bremsstrahlung rays constitute about 90% of the
radiation emitted as X-rays. For example, to produce
characteristic radiation with a tungsten target, at least 70 kVs
is required for K-shell interaction, because the K-shell electron
of tungsten is held with 69.53 effective kilovoltage.
Characteristic radiation produced in the interaction of X-rays
with matter is usually referred to as secondary radiation and
is a form of scatter.

X-RAY INTERACTION WITH MATTER

X-ray interact with all forms of matter. This interactions with
matter result in absorption of energy and thus attenuation of
the X-ray beam (reduction in intensity of the X-ray beam) and
the production of secondary radiation. The X-ray energy
absorbed by the tissue causes chemical changes that result
into tissue damage by ionization and free radical formation
(Fig. 2.4).
When X-rays are absorbed by matter, positive and
negative ions and secondary radiation are formed from
previously neutral atoms. The amount and type of absorption
that takes place depend on the energy of the
X-ray beam (the wavelength) and the composition of the
absorbing matter. The thicker the material the more X-rays
will be absorbed. The other factors which determine the
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 19

Fig. 2.4: X-ray interaction with matter A—Thompson effect,

B—Compton effect, C—Photoelectric effect
 20 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
X-ray absorption are the number of orbiting electrons, the
numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
When X-rays are absorbed by any material that does not
become radioactive because X-rays have no effect on the
nucleas of the absorbing atom, affecting only the atom’s
orbiting electrons. Thus the equipments or walls in a dental
X-ray room do not become radioactive after continuous
exposure to radiation.
Four possibilities can occur when an X-ray photon
interacts with tissue:
1. No interaction the X-ray photon can pass through the atom
uncharged and leave the atom unchanged. This happens
about 9%.
2. Thompson scatter (coherent scatter): In this effect the
X-ray photon has its path altered by the atom. There is no
change to the absorbing atom, but a photon of scattered
radiation is produced. This accounts for about 8% of the
interaction.
3. Photoelectric effect: The X-ray photon can collide with an
orbiting electron giving up all energy to dislodge the
electron from its orbit. The photoelectron that is produced
has a negative charge and the remaining atom has a
positive charge. This is ionization and this interaction takes
place about 30% of the time with dental X-rays.
The X-ray photon collide with a loosely bound electron of
an outer shell of the atom and only give up past of its energy
in ejecting the electron from its orbit. This results in a
negatively charged ejected Compton electron, a photon of
scattered radiation and a remaining atom that is now
positively charged. This effect is ionization and takes place
about 62% of the time with dental X-rays.
4. Compton effect: In both the comptom and photoelectron
interactions, the ejected high-speed electron interacts with
other absorbing tissue and causes further ionization,
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 21
excitation breaking of molecular bonds, all of which causes
adverse tissue effects.

X-RAY MACHINE
X-ray machine is the machine for generating X-rays. The
component parts of an X-ray machine are X-ray tube head,
control panel and the extension arm (Fig. 2.5).

X-ray Tube Head

It is a tightly sealed heavy metal housing that contains the X-
ray tube that produces dental X-rays. The component parts
of the tube head are:
• Metal housing or body of the tube head that surrounds
the X-ray tube and transformers and is filled with oil and
protects the X-ray tube.

Fig. 2.5: Dental X-ray machine

 22 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

• Insulating oil: This oil is present surrounding the X-ray

tube and transformers inside the tube head. It prevents
overheating by absorbing the heat created by the
production of X-rays.
• Tube head seal: It is made up of aluminum or leaded glass
covering the tube head and permits the exit of
X-rays from the tube head. It acts as a filter to the X-ray
beam.
Aluminum disks or sheets: 0.5 mm thick aluminum disks
are placed in the path of the X-ray beam. These disks filter
out the non-penetrating longer wavelengths X-rays.
Collimator: A lead plate with a central hole that fits
directly over the opening of the metal housing where the
X-rays exit. It restricts the size of the X-ray beam.
Position-indicating device (PID): This is open ended
cone-shaped lead lined cylinder that extends from the
opening of the metal housing to the tube head. It aims and
shapes the X-ray beam.

X-RAY TUBE
The X-ray tube is the heart of the X-ray generating systems.
The X-ray tube is positioned within the tube head along with
some components of the power supply. All dental
X-ray tube are called collidge tubes. The X-ray tube is a glass
vacuum tube from which all the air has been removed. The
X-ray tube is composed of a lead glass housing, a cathode
and an anode (Fig. 2.6).

BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN X-RAY TUBE

Cathode
Lead glass housing is a leaded glass vacuum tube that
prevents X-rays from escaping in all directions. The central
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 23

Fig. 2.6: A dental X-ray tube

area of the tube has a window for the exit of the X-ray beam
and directs the X-ray beam toward the aluminum disks, lead
collimator and PID (Fig. 2.7).
The cathode or negative electrode in an X-ray tube consists
of a tungsten wire filament and a focusing cup-shaped holder
made of molybdenum. From the cathode side of the tube the

Fig. 2.7: Diagram of a simple X-ray tube showing the main

components
 24 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
electron pass through a focusing cup or area and is directed
toward the anode. The cathode consists of:
(a) The filament is a coil of tungsten wire about 2 mm in
diameter and 1 cm or less in length, and is the source of
electron. The filament is heated by the flow of current from
the low-voltage source and emits electrons.
(b) The focusing cusp is a negative charged concave reflector
made of molybdenum in which lies the filaments. The
focusing as emitted electrons by the filament into a narrow
beam directed as a small rectangular area on the anode
which is called the focal spot.

Anode
The anode or positive electrode consists of a wafer thin
tungsten plate embedded in a copper rod. The purpose of the
anode (target) in an X-ray tube is to convert the kinetic energy
of the electrons generated from the filament into X-ray
photons.
The anode consists of the following:
(a) A tungsten target: Tungsten has a high atomic number
(T4), high melting point, high thermal conductivity and
low vapor pressure at the working temperatures of an X-
ray tube.
Tungsten target serves as a focal spot. The focal spot
is the area on the target to which the focusing cup directs
the electrons from the filament. The target is inclined about
20 degree to the central ray of the X-ray beam, this gives
the effect of a small apparent source of X-rays and an
increase in sharpness of the image with a larger actual
focal spot for heat dissipation. This type of anode is a
stationary anode (Fig. 2.8).
Rotating anode is another method of dissipating the
heat from a small focal spot. In this the electrons strike
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 25

Fig. 2.8: Diagram of the enlarged anode showing the target

and summarizing the interaction at the target

successive areas of the target, and thus distributing the

heat over this expanded area (Fig. 2.9).
(b) The copper stem: The tungsten target is embedded in a
large block of copper to dissipate heat, thus reducing the
risk of the target melting.

Fig. 2.9: Rotating anode to dissipate heat

 26 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
X-RAY GENERATING APPARATUS
This includes the electricity, electric currents, electrical circuits
and transformers.

Electricity
Electricity is the energy that is used to make X-rays.
Electronic current is the flow of electrons through the tube,
that is from the filament to the anode and then back to the
filament.
Electric currents are of two types:
(i) Direct current: When the electrons flow in only one
direction through the conductor.
(ii) Alternating current (AC): When the current in which the
electrons flow in two opposite directions.
Rectification is the conversion of alternating current to
direct current. The dental X-ray tube acts as a self-rectifier
and changes AC into DC when producing X-rays.
Rate of current flow: It is the measurement of the number
of electrons moving through a conductor. It is measured in
amperes or milliamperes (mA).
Voltage: It is the measurement of electrical force that
causes electrons to move from a negative pole to a positive
pole. It is measured in volt or kilovolts (kV). The kilovolt
(kV) is 1000 V.
The amperage and voltage can be adjusted in the X-ray
tube for the production of X-rays. In an alternating current
where the direction of the current is constantly changing the
voltage is also changing and the term kilovolt peak (kVp) is
used to denote the maximum or peak voltage that is described
by the sine wave that plots the alternation of the current. A
dental X-ray machine that is set for a potential of 90 kVp will
reach 90 kVp only at the peak of the alternating current during
exposure.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 27

By the adjustment on the control panel in the X-ray

machine, the number of electrons passing through the cathode
filament can be increased or decreased by the millamperage
(mA), and the current passing from the cathode to the anode
is controlled by the kilovoltage peak (kVp).
Circuit: It is a path of electrical current (Fig. 2.10).
Two types of electrical currents are needed in the
production of X-rays:
(a) A low voltage circuit (Primary circuit): It uses 3 to 5 volts
which regulates the flow of electrical current to the
filament of the X-ray tube. This is controlled by the
milliampere settings in the control panel.
(b) A high voltage circuit (Secondary circuit): It uses 65,000 to
100,000 volts. A high-voltage circuit is used to accelerate
electrons and to generate X-rays in the X-ray tube. This is
controlled by the kilovoltage setting in the control panel.
A high voltage is required between the anode and the
cathode to generate X-rays.

Fig. 2.10: An electric circuit in X-ray machine

 28 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
TRANSFORMER
Transformer is a device used to increase or decrease the
voltage in an electrical circuit. Three types of transformers
are used in the dental X-rays to adjust the electrical circuit:
(a) Step-down transformer: Step-down transformer is used to
reduce the voltage of the incoming alternating current
(AC) to about 10 volts. Its operation is regulated by the
milliampere (mA) switch. Low-voltage circuit regulates
the temperature of the filament and thus the number of
electrons emitted.
(b) Step-up transformer: This is used to increase the voltage
from the incoming 110 or 220 voltage to the 65,000 to
100,000 volts.

Autotransformer
Autotransformer converts the primary voltage from the input
source into the secondary voltage. The secondary voltage is
regulated by the kilovolts peak (kVp) dial. The kVp dial
controls the voltage between the anode and the cathode of
the X-ray tube. The high-voltage transformer provides the
high voltage required by the X-ray tube to accelerate the
electron from the cathode to anode and generates X-rays.

CONTROL PANEL
In clinical practice the control panel is the most common
interface of the fluoroscope and the radiographer. From this
panel variations in power delivered through the X-ray tube
can be controlled for improved images. The milliamperage
determines the intensity of the X-ray beam. Kilovoltage
determines the speed of the electrons and quality of the
X-ray beam. The length of exposure is often measured in
second and is the most obvious factor in measuring X-ray
exposure.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 29
The milliamperage is important in determining the
quantity of X-rays produced. In combination with the length
of exposure, the milliamperage is important to the quality of
the image produced. For a stop-motion situation, the operator
may need to combine a high milliamperage with a short
exposure time.
Kilovoltage determines the penetrating ability and quality
of the X-ray beam. The higher energy release of X-rays results
in a greater number of photons to be captured by the image.
This allows for a more detailed and wider range of contrast
of the gray scale.
The timer is also located on the control panel. There are
audible alerts set at 5-minute intervals to remind the
fluoroscopist of the actual time of X-radiation exposure.
Exposure is best limited by minimizing fluoroscopy time.
To simplify the measurement of time, the timer should be
reset prior to each new procedure. Many of the other buttons
available for manual control involve the orientation of the
fluoroscopic image from left to right inversion. This function
is important for the interventional physician in the
performance of the procedure.
Interventional radiology procedures can require
substantial amounts of ionizing radiation and, therefore,
necessitate particularly close attention to radiation
management.

TIMER
In newer dental X-ray machines, the exposure deal are not
calibrated in fractions of seconds but more realistically in
impulses. On the timer dial ‘24’ means 24 impulses per second,
which is equivalent to 2/5 or 24/60 second of exposure. Now
all machines have electronically controlled timers so that those
short exposure times can be achieved accurately and
repeatedly.
 30 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
The X-ray machine should be turned off after use. Warm-
up time is almost instantaneous for the X-ray tube, so there is
no need to keep the machine on during the work day.

X-RAY BEAM
The X-ray photons produced at the target in the dental X-ray
tube emanate from and leave the tube as a divergent beam.
The X-ray at the center of the beam is called the central ray.
The X-rays closest to the central ray are more parallel and those
furthest away are more divergent. The more parallel rays
produce less magnification of the image are more useful.
The X-ray beam is positioned or aimed at the film in the
patient’s mouth by open ended device either a rectangle or a
cylinder, called a position indicating device (PID). These PID
should be lead lined to prevent the scatter radiation to escape
outside. PID are usually 8, 12 or 16 inches long. All dental
machines has short 8-inch, plastic, pointed cones as position-
indicating devices. The cones is incorrectly used, the proper
term is position indicating device. The problem with the
pointed plastic cone is the secondary radiation that is
produced by the interaction of the primary beam of X-ray
photons with the plastic cone. These secondary X-ray increase
the long wavelength radiation to the patient’s face and
degrade the diagnostic image on the film.
When the open ended PID is used, there is no material at
the end of the PID with which to interact. Now open ended
PID is most commonly used.

BASIC OPERATION OF X-RAY TUBE

Once the electrical signal is sent through the circuitry, the
filament is energized to "boil off" electrons as a thermionic
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 31
emission. As the increase of kilovolt (peak) passes through the
filament the creation of a higher potential difference results in
the emission of electrons beyond the "cloud" of electrons that
are found in the vicinity of the filament. The attraction of the
electrons into the metal anode (+) surface and the following
abrupt stopping of the electrons produce X-radiations and heat.
Unfortunately, 99% of this energy is converted into undesired
heat and less than 1% is converted into X-radiation.
The variation of the kilovoltage affects the speed of the
electrons directed at the anode and generates different
wavelengths of the X-rays. For example, A shorter wavelength
makes the beam more penetrating. A longer wavelength
X-ray is less energetic and less penetrating.

Main Features of an X-ray Tube

• The cathode (negative): This consists of a heated filament
of tungsten that provides the source of electrons.
• The anode (positive): This consists of a target (a small piece
of tungsten) set into the angled face of a large copper block
to allow efficient removal of heat.
• A focusing device aims the stream of electrons at the focal
spot on the target.
• A surrounding lead casing absorbs unwanted X-rays as a
radiation protection measure to prevent X-rays, which are
emitted in all directions.
• Surrounding oil facilitates the removal of heat.

Main Properties and Characteristics of X-rays

1. X-rays are wave packets of energy of electromagnetic
radiation that originate at the atomic level.
2. Each wave packet is equivalent to a quantum of energy
and is called a photon. The X-ray beam is made up of
millions of photons of different energies.
 32 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

3. X-rays are invisible and are undetectable by any lenses.

4. X-rays have no mass or weight.
5. X-rays travel at the speed of light, i.e. 3 × 108 m s-1.
6. In free space, X-rays travel in straight lines and can be
different or scattered.
7. No medium is required for propagation.
8. X-rays can penetrate solids, liquids and gases. The
composition of the substance determines whether X-rays
penetrate or pass through or are absorbed.
9. X-rays are capable of producing ionization.
10. X-rays of shorter wavelength have greater energy and
therefore, can penetrate a greater distance.
11. X-rays of longer wavelength (soft X-rays) have less energy
and have little penetrating power.
12. X-rays can effect film emulsion to produce a visual image
(the radiograph) and can cause certain salts to fluoresce
and to emit light.

COMPTON EFFECT
Compton effect is an absorption and scattering process
predominating with higher-energy photons (see Fig. 2.4B).

Stages in Compton Effect

• The incoming X-ray photon interacts with a free or loosely
bound outer-shell electron of the tissue atom.
• The outer-shell electron is ejected (the compton recoil
electron) with loss of some energy of the incoming
photon, i.e. there is some absorption. The ejected electron
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 33

then undergoes further ionizing interactions within the

tissue.
• The remainder of the incoming photon energy is
deflected or scattered from its original path as a scattered
photon.
• The scattered photon then:
– Undergoes further comptom interaction within the
tissues.
– Undergoes photoelectric interactions within the tissues.
– Escapes from the tissues. It is these photons that form
the scattered radiation.
• Another free electron is captured to achieve atomic
stability.

Summary of Production of X-ray

• The filament is electrically heated and a cloud of electrons

is produced around the filament.
• The high voltage (potential difference) across the tube
accelerates the electrons at very high speed toward the
anode.
• The focusing device aims the electron stream at the focal
spot on the target.
• The electrons bombard the target and are brought
suddenly to rest.
• The energy lost by electrons is transferred into either heat
(99%) or X-ray (about 1%).
• The head produced is removed and dissipated by the
copper rod and the surrounding coil.
• The X-rays are emitted in all direction from the target.
 34 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

Fig. 2.11: Diagram showing production of X-rays

• The X-rays emitted through the small window in the

head casing constitute the beam for diagnostic purposes
(Fig. 2.11).
 Chapter 3

X-ray Image
Characteristics
 36 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
CHARACTERISTICS OF X-RAY IMAGE
X-ray image characteristics have:
a. Visual characteristics.
b. Geometric characteristics or projection geometry.
In visual image characteristics include—density and
contrast. The geometric image characteristics include—
sharpness, magnification and distortion.

DENSITY
The overall degree of darkness or blackness of an exposed
film is termed as density. This density can be measured as
the optical density of an area of an X-ray film where optical
I
density = Log 10 0
I1
I0 is the intensity of incident light and Il is the intensity of
the light transmitted through the film.

Measurement of the Opacity of the Film

100% light is transmitted when the optical density is 0, 10%
light is transmitted when the density is 1 and 1% light is
transmitted when the density is 2.

Characteristic Curve
The relationship between the optical density and the exposure
is called characteristic curve. It is usually shown as graph
between the optical density of film and the logarithm of the
corresponding exposure (Fig. 3.1). As the exposure of the film
increases its optical density also increases. The characteristic
curve of the film give information about film contrast, speed
and latitude. A number of factors directly influence the density
of an X-ray film. The density of X-ray film is controlled by
 X-RAY IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS 37

Fig. 3.1: Characteristic curve showing relationship between

the optical density and exposure

three-exposure factors, subject thickness and subject density.

These three exposure factors are:
• Milliamperage (mA)
• Kilovoltage peak (kVp)
• Exposure time
The film density depends on the number of photons
absorbed by the film emulsion. The density of the radiograph
increases by increasing the milliamperage (mA), kilovoltage
peak (kVp) or exposure time, thus increases the number of
photons reaching the film. The film density is also increased
by reducing the distance between the focal spot and film.
 38 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY
Milliamperage (mA)
The film density is increased by increasing the milliamperage
and thus produces more X-rays that expose the film and the
radiograph appears darker (black). Similarly, the film density
is decreased by decreasing the milliamperage and the
radiograph appears lighter.

Kilovoltage Peak (kVp)

The film density is increased by increasing the kilovoltage
which produces X-rays of higher energy and thus the
radiograph appears darker. Similarly, the film density is
decreased by decreasing to kilovoltage and the radiograph
appears lighter.

Exposure Time
Film density is increased by increasing the exposure time and
thus the total number of X-rays are increased that reach the
film surface and the radiograph appears darker.

Subject Thickness
The thicker the subject, the lighter the resultant image and
the more the beam is attenuated. The exposure factors (either
kVp or exposure time) can be changed according to the
patient's size to produce radiograph of optimal density.

Subject Density
The variations in the density of the subject exert influence on
the image of dental film. The greater the density of the
structures the greater the attenuation of the X-ray beam
directed through that subject. The densities of various
structures in oral cavity in decreasing orders are enamel,
dentin, cementum, bone, muscle, fat and air. Metallic subjects,
 X-RAY IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS 39

such as amalgam and gold restorations, are far denser than

enamel.

Radiopaque Objects
Dense objects cause the radiographic image to be light because
of strong absorption of X-rays and thus appear radiopaque.

Radiolucent Objects
Low density objects cause the radiographic image to be dark
on the film because of weak absorption of X-rays (photon)
and appear radiolucent in the X-ray film.

CONTRAST
Contrast is the difference in the densities between light and
dark regions on a dental radiograph.

High Contrast
An image on radiograph showing both light areas and dark
areas is said to have high contrast also known as short gray
scale of contrast.

Low Contrast
A radiographic image showing light gray and dark gray zones
is said to have low contrast also known as a long gray scale of
contrast.
The radiographic contrast of an image is the result of
subject contrast and film contrast.

Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the range of characteristics of the subject
that influence radiographic contrast, which is determined by
 40 STEP BY STEP ORAL RADIOLOGY

the thickness, density and atomic number of the subject.

Subject contrast can be altered by increasing or decreasing
the kilovoltage. Mostly operator select a kVp in the range of
70 to 80. When increasing the kVp of the X-ray beam, subject
contrast decreases and shades of gray are seen on the dental
radiograph. When low kVp is used, subject contrast increases
and areas of black and white are seen.

Film Contrast
Film contrast is the capacity of the radiographic films to
display differences in subject contrast. This is the
characteristic of the film that influences contrast include the
inherent qualities of the film and film processing. Film
qualities are under the control of the manufacturer and film
processing is under the control of the dental radiographer.
Film contrast is maximized by optimal film processing
conditions. Mishandling of the film by incomplete or
excessive development diminishes contrast of anatomic
structures. The film contrast is also diminished by improper
handling of film such as storage at too high a temperature,
exposure to light leaks or using excessively bright safelights
in the darkroom and also decrease in development time or
the temperature of the developer solution.

Radiographic Speed
Radiographic speed is the amount of radiation required to
produce an image of a standard density. Film speed is
reciprocal of the exposure required to produce an optical
density of 1.
The optical density of 1 is achieved by a fast film
requiring low exposure whereas slow film requires a longer
exposure.
 X-RAY IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS 41
Film speed is controlled by: (a) the size of the silver halide
grains and their silver content. Film speed can be increased
by increasing the graininess; (b) Temperature—film speed
can be increased by processing the film at higher
temperature; (c) processing solutions—use of fresh
processing solution increases the film speed. Depleted
solutions slower the effective speed; (d) processing time—a
recommended processing time should be used. Film speed
of dental film is indicated by letters C, D, E and F. The fastest
film speed is F of range 48-96 (reciprocal roentgens). For
intraoral radiography faster speed film D or more are
appropriate. C film has slow speed of range 6-12 (reciprocal
roentgens).

Film Latitude
Film latitude is the measurement of range of exposures that
are recorded on a film as distinguishable densities.
Wide latitude is required in a film, which can record a
subject with a wide range of subject contrast. Wide latitude
films are useful when both the osseous structures and soft
tissues must be recorded. Film with a wide latitude have lower
contrast than the films with a narrow latitude.
A wide latitude and low contrast images can be produced
by a high kVp. Wide latitude film is recommended for imaging
studies.

Radiographic Noise
Radiographic noise is the appearance of uneven density of a
uniformly exposed radiographic film due to localized
variations in density.
The causes of noise are:
• Radiographic mottle
• Radiographic artifact
Other documents randomly have
different content
vessel bound from England to Valparaiso with a heavy cargo and no
passengers. Captain Coxon and his first mate, Duckling, were so
brutal in their treatment of the crew, that before many days a
mutiny arose, headed by Stevens the ship’s carpenter. The captain
and the mate were murdered, but Royle was spared to guide the
ship to the West Indies. The crew were a treacherous gang, and
near Bermuda they scuttled the Grosvenor and abandoned her to
sink with the skipper, the boatswain, and the steward who remained
faithful to him, and Mary Robertson, a girl whom Royle had rescued
from a passing wreck. But the mutineers’ plot had been discovered
by the boatswain, who plugged up the holes in the ship’s side, and
when the crew deserted her the Grosvenor cheerfully sailed away.
Discovering their mistake one boatload of the villains went in pursuit.
In the ensuing skirmish all of this party, except Jim Cornish, were
killed, and he was captured with the quarter-boat itself. But even
with Cornish turned a faithful ally, the Grosvenor had not sufficient
crew to man her, and she was soon crippled by a tremendous gale.
Their signal of distress was disregarded by a Russian ship which
might have rescued them, and the shock of this disappointment
destroyed the poor steward’s wits and broke the heart of Cornish.
The Grosvenor was fast sinking; there was no alternative but to take
to the quarter-boat which they had captured from the mutineers.
The following story tells how the three men and the girl were saved
from the wreck of the Grosvenor.
 SAVED
(From The Wreck of the Grosvenor.)
By W. CLARK RUSSELL.

We had never yet had the leisure to inspect

the stores with which the mutineers had
furnished the quarter-boat, and we now
found, in spite of their having shifted a lot
of provisions out of her into the long-boat
before starting in pursuit of us, that there
was still an abundance left: four kegs of
water, several tins of cuddy bread,
preserved meats and fruits, sugar, flour, and
other things, not to mention such items as
boxes of lucifer matches, fishing-tackle, a
burning glass, a quantity of tools and nails;
in a word, everything which men in the condition they had hoped to
find themselves in might stand in need of to support life. Indeed, the
foresight illustrated by the provisioning of this boat was truly
remarkable, the only things they had omitted being a mast and sail,
it having been their intention to keep this boat in tow of the other. I
even found that they had furnished the boat with the oars belonging
to the disabled quarter-boat in addition to her own.

However, the boat was not yet stocked to my satisfaction. I

therefore repaired to my cabin and procured the boat’s compass,
some charts, a sextant, and other necessary articles such as the
“Nautical Almanac,” and pencils and paper wherewith to work out
my observations, which I placed very carefully in the locker in the
stern-sheets of the boat.

I allowed Mary to help me, that the occupation might divert her
mind from the overwhelming thoughts which the gradual settling of
the ship on which we stood must have excited in the strongest and
bravest mind; and, indeed, I worked busily and eagerly to guard
myself against any terror that might come upon me. She it was who
suggested that we should provide ourselves with lamps and oil; and
I shipped a lantern to hoist at our masthead when the darkness
came, and the bull’s-eye lamp to enable me to work out
observations of the stars, which I intended to make when the night
fell. To all these things, which sound numerous, but in reality
occupied but little space, I added a can of oil, meshes for the lamps,
top coats, oil-skins, and rugs to protect us at night, so that the
afternoon was well advanced before we had ended our preparations.
Meanwhile, the boatswain had stepped a topgallant-stun’-sail boom
to serve us for a mast, well stayed, with a block and halyards at the
masthead to serve for hoisting a flag or lantern, and a spare
topgallant-stun’-sail to act as a sail.

By this time the wind had completely died away; a peaceful deep-
blue sky stretched from horizon to horizon; and the agitation of the
sea had subsided into a long and silent swell, which washed up
against the ship’s sides, scarcely causing her to roll, so deep had she
sunk in the water.

I now thought it high time to lower the boat and bring her
alongside, as our calculation of the length of time to be occupied by
the ship in sinking might be falsified to our destruction by her
suddenly going stern down with us on board.

We therefore lowered the boat and got the gangway-ladder over the
side.
The boatswain got into the boat first to help Mary into her. I then
took the steward by the arms and brought him along smartly, as
there was danger in keeping the boat washing against the ship’s
side. He resisted at first, and only smiled vacantly when I threatened
to leave him; but on the boatswain crying out that his wife was
waiting for him, the poor idiot got himself together with a scramble,
and went so hastily over the gangway that he narrowly escaped a
ducking.

I paused a moment at the gangway and looked around, striving to

remember if there was anything we had forgotten which would be of
some use to us. Mary watched me anxiously, and called to me by my
Christian name, at the same time extending her arms. I would not
keep her in suspense a moment, and at once dropped into the boat.
She grasped and fondled my hand, and drew me close beside her.

“I should have gone on board again had you delayed coming,” she
whispered.

The boatswain shoved the boat’s head off, and we each shipped an
oar and pulled the boat about a quarter of a mile away from the
ship; and then, from a strange and wild curiosity to behold the ship
sink, and still in our hearts clinging to her, not only as the home
where we had found shelter for many days past, but as the only
visible object in all the stupendous reach of waters, we threw in the
oars and sat watching her.

She had now sunk as deep as her main-chains, and was but a little
higher out of the water than the hull from which we had rescued
Mary and her father. It was strange to behold her even from a short
distance and notice her littleness in comparison with the immensity
of the deep on which she rested, and recall the terrible seas she had
braved and triumphed over.

Few sailors can behold the ship in which they have sailed sinking
before their eyes without the same emotion of distress and pity,
 almost, which the
spectacle of a drowning
man excites in them. She
has grown a familiar
name, a familiar object;
thus far she has borne
them in safety; she has
been rudely beaten, and
yet has done her duty;
but the tempest has
broken her down at last; all the beauty is shorn from her; she is
weary with the long and dreadful struggles with the vast forces that
nature arrayed against her; she sinks, a desolate, abandoned thing,
in mid-ocean, carrying with her a thousand memories which surge
up in the heart with the pain of a strong man’s tears.

I looked from the ship to realize our own position. Perhaps not yet
could it be keenly felt, for the ship was still a visible object for us to
hold on by; and yet, turning my eyes away to the far reaches of the
horizon at one moment borne high on the summit of the ocean
swell, which appeared mountainous when felt in and viewed from
the boat, then sinking deep in the hollow, so that the near ship was
hidden from us—the supreme loneliness of our situation, our
helplessness, and the fragility and diminutiveness of the structure on
which our lives depended, came home to me with the pain and
wonder of a shock.

Our boat, however, was new this voyage, with a good beam, and
showing a tolerably bold side, considering her dimensions and
freight. Of the two quarter-boats with which the Grosvenor had been
furnished, this was the larger and the stronger built, and for this
reason had been chosen by Stevens. I could not hope, indeed, that
she would live a moment in anything of a sea; but she was certainly
stout enough to carry us to the Bermudas, providing that the
weather remained moderate.
It was now six o’clock. I said to the boatswain:

“Every hour of this weather is valuable to us. There is no reason why

we should stay here.”

“I should like to see her sink, Mr. Royle; I should like to know that
poor Jim found a regular coffin in her,” he answered. “We can’t make
no headway with the sail, and I don’t recommend rowin’ for the two
or three mile we can fetch with the oars. It ’ud be wurse nor
pumpin’.”

He was right. When I reflected, I was quite sure I should not, in my

exhausted state, be able to handle one of the big oars for even five
minutes at a stretch; and, admitting that I had been strong enough
to row for a couple of hours, yet the result to have been obtained
could not have been important enough to justify the serious labor.

The steward all this time sat perfectly quiet in the bottom of the
boat, with his back against the mast. He paid no attention to us
when we spoke, nor looked around him, though sometimes he
would fix his eyes vacantly on the sky as if his shattered mind found
relief in contemplating the void. I was heartily glad to find him quiet,
though I took care to watch him, for it was difficult to tell whether
his imbecility was not counterfeited, by his madness, to throw us off
our guard, and furnish him with an opportunity to play us and
himself some deadly trick.

As some hours had elapsed since we had tasted food, I opened a tin
of meat and prepared a meal. The boatswain ate heartily, and so did
the steward: but I could not prevail upon Mary to take more than a
biscuit and sherry and water.

Indeed, as the evening approached, our position affected her more

deeply, and often, after she had cast her eyes toward the horizon, I
could see her lips whispering a prayer, and feel her hand tightening
on mine.
The ship still floated, but she was so low in the water that I every
minute expected to see her vanish. The water was above her main-
chains, and I could only attribute her obstinacy in not sinking to the
great quantity of wood—both in cases and goods—which composed
her cargo.

The sun was now quite close to the horizon, branding the ocean with
a purple glare, but itself descending in a cloudless sky. I cannot
express how majestic and wonderful the great orb looked to us who
were almost level with the water. Its disk seemed vaster than I had
ever before seen it, and there was something sublimely solemn in
the loneliness of its descent. All the sky about it, and far to the south
and north, was changed into the color of gold by its lustre; and over
our heads the heavens were an exquisite tender green, which
melted in the east into a dark blue.

I was telling Mary that ere the sun sunk again we might be on board
a ship, and whispering any words of encouragement and hope to
her, when I was startled by the boatswain, crying, “Now she’s gone!
Look at her!”

I turned my eyes toward the ship, and could scarcely credit my

senses when I found that her hull had vanished, and that nothing
was to be seen of her but her spars, which were all aslant
sternward.

I held my breath as I saw the masts sink lower and lower. First the
cross-jack yard was submerged, the gaff with the ensign hanging
dead at the peak, then the main-yard; presently only the main-
topmast cross-trees were visible, a dark cross upon the water; they
vanished. At the same moment the sun disappeared behind the
horizon; and now we were alone on the great, breathing deep, with
all the eastern sky growing dark as we watched.

“It’s all over!” said the boatswain, breaking the silence, and speaking
in a hollow tone. “No livin’ man’ll ever see the Grosvenor again!”
Mary shivered and leaned against me. I took up a rug and folded it
round her, and kissed her forehead.

The boatswain had turned his back upon us, and sat with his hands
folded, I believe in prayer. I am sure he was thinking of Jim Cornish,
and I would not have interrupted that honest heart’s communion
with its Maker for the value of the ship that had sunk.

Darkness came down very quickly, and, that we might lose no

chance of being seen by any distant vessel, I lighted the ship’s
lantern and hoisted it at the masthead. I also lighted the bull’s-eye
lamp and set it in the stern-sheets.

“Mary,” I whispered, “I will make you up a bed in the bottom of the

boat. While this weather lasts, dearest, we have no cause to be
alarmed by our position. It will make me happy to see you sleeping,
and be sure that while you sleep there will be watchful eyes near
you.”

“I will sleep as I am here, by your side; I shall rest better so,” she
answered. “I could not sleep lying down.”

It was too sweet a privilege to forego; I passed my arm around her

and held her close to me; and she closed her eyes like a child, to
please me.

Worn out as I was, enfeebled both intellectually and physically by

the heavy strain that had been put upon me ever since that day
when I had been ironed by Captain Coxon’s orders, I say—and I
solemnly believe in the truth of what I am about to write—that had
it not been for the living reality of this girl, encircled by my arm, with
her head supported by my shoulder; had it not been for the deep
love I felt for her, which localized my thoughts, and, so to say,
humanized them down to the level of our situation, forbidding them
to trespass beyond the prosaic limits of our danger, of the
precautions to be taken by us, of our chances of rescue, of the
course to be steered when the wind should fill our sail—I should
have gone mad when the night came down upon the sea and
enveloped our boat (a lonely speck on the gigantic world of water) in
the mystery and fear of the darkness. I know this by recalling the
fancy that for a few moments possessed me in looking along the
water, when I clearly beheld the outline of a coast, with innumerable
lights winking upon it; by the whirling, dizzy sensation in my head
which followed the extinction of the vision; by the emotion of wild
horror and unutterable disappointment which overcame me when I
detected the cheat. I pressed my darling to me, and looked upon her
sweet face, revealed by the light shed by the lantern at the
masthead, and all my misery left me; and the delight which the
knowledge that she was my own love, and that I held her in my
arms, gave me, fell like an exorcism upon the demons of my stricken
imagination.

She smiled when I pressed her to my side, and when she saw my
face close to hers, looking at her; but she did not know that she had
saved me from a fate more dreadful than death, and that I—so
strong as I seemed, so earnest as I had shown myself in my
conflicts with fate, so resolutely as I had striven to comfort her—had
been rescued from madness by her whom I had a thousand times
pitied for her helplessness.

She fell asleep at last, and I sat for nearly two hours motionless,
that I should not awaken her. The steward slept with his head in his
arms, kneeling—a strange, mad posture. The boatswain sat forward,
with his face turned aft and his arms folded. I addressed him once,
but he did not answer. Probably I spoke too low for him to hear,
being fearful of waking Mary; but there was little we had to say.
Doubtless he found his thoughts too engrossing to suffer him to talk.

Being anxious, to “take a star,” as we say at sea, and not knowing

how the time went, I gently drew out my watch and found the hour
a quarter to eleven. In replacing the watch I aroused Mary, who
raised her head and looked round her with eyes that flashed in the
lantern light.
“Where are we?” she exclaimed, and bent her head to gaze at me,
on which she recollected herself. “Poor boy!” she said, taking my
hand, “I have kept you supporting my weight. You were more tired
than I. But it is your turn now. Rest your head on my shoulder.”

“No, it is still your turn,” I answered, “and you shall sleep again
presently. But since you are awake, I will try to find out where we
are. You shall hold the lamp for me while I make my calculations,
and examine the chart.”

Saying which, I drew out my sextant and got across the thwarts to
the mast, which I stood up alongside of to lean on; for the swell,
though moderate enough to pass without notice on a big vessel,
lifted and sank the boat in such a way as to make it difficult to stand
steady.

I was in the act of raising the sextant to my eye, when the

boatswain suddenly cried, “Mr. Royle, listen!”

“What do you hear?” I asked.

“Hush! listen now!” he answered, in a breathless voice.

I strained my ear, but nothing was audible to me but the wash of the
water against the boat’s side.

“Don’t you hear it, Mr. Royle?” he cried, in a kind of agony, holding
up his finger. “Miss Robertson, don’t you hear something?”

There was another interval of silence, and Mary answered: “I hear a

kind of throbbing.”

“It is so!” I exclaimed. “I hear it now! it is the engines of a steamer.”

“A steamer? Yes! I hear it! where is she?” shouted the boatswain,

and he jumped on to the thwart on which I stood.
We strained our ears again.

That throbbing sound, as Mary had accurately described it, closely

resembling the rhythmical running of a locomotive-engine heard in
the country on a silent night at a long distance, was now distinctly
audible; but so smooth was the water, so breathless the night, that it
was impossible to tell how far away the vessel might be; for so fine
and delicate a vehicle of sound is the ocean in a calm, that, though
the hull of a steamship might be below the horizon, yet the
thumping of her engines would be heard.

Once more we inclined our ears, holding our breath as we listened.

“It grows louder!” cried the boatswain. “Mr. Royle, bend your bull’s-
eye lamp to the end o’ one o’ the oars and swing it about, while I
dip this masthead lantern.”

Very different was his manner now from what it had been that
morning when the Russian hove in sight.

I lashed the lamp by the ring of it to an oar and waved it to and fro.
Meanwhile the boatswain had got hold of the masthead halyards,
and was running the big ship’s lantern up and down the mast.

“Mary,” I exclaimed, “lift up the seat behind you, and in the left-hand
corner you will find a pistol.”

“I have it,” she answered, in a few moments.

“Point it over the stern and fire!” I cried.

She levelled the little weapon and pulled the trigger; the white flame
leaped, and a smart report followed.

“Listen now!” I said.

I held the oar steady, and the boatswain ceased to dance the
lantern. For the first few seconds I heard nothing, then my ear
caught the throbbing sound.

“I see her!” cried the boatswain; and, following his finger (my sight
being keener than my hearing), I saw not only the shadow of a
vessel down in the south-west, but the smoke from her funnel
pouring along the stars.

“Mary,” I cried, “fire again!”

She drew the trigger.

“Again!”

The clear report whizzed like a bullet past my ear.

Simultaneously with the second report a ball of blue fire shot up into
the sky. Another followed, and another.

A moment after a red light shone clear upon the sea.

“She sees us!” I cried, “God be praised! Mary, darling, she sees us!”

I waved the lamp furiously. But there was no need to wave it any
longer. The red light drew nearer and nearer; the throbbing of the
engines louder and louder, and the revolutions of the propeller
sounded like a pulse heating through the water. The shadow
broadened and loomed larger. I could hear the water spouting out of
her side and the blowing off of the safety-valve.

Soon the vessel grew a defined shape against the stars, and then a
voice, thinned by the distance, shouted, “What light is that?”

I cried to the boatswain: “Answer, for God’s sake! My voice is weak.”

He hollowed his hands and roared back: “We’re shipwrecked seamen

adrift in a quarter-boat!”
Nearer and nearer came the shadow, and now it was a long, black
hull, a funnel pouring forth a dense volume of smoke, spotted with
fire-sparks, and tapering masts and fragile rigging, with the stars
running through them.

“Ease her!”

The sound of the throbbing grew more measured. We could hear the
water as it was churned up by the screw.

“Stop her!”

The sounds ceased, and the vessel came looming up slowly, more
slowly, until she stopped.

“What is that?—a boat?” exclaimed a strong bass voice.

“Yes!” answered the boatswain. “We’ve been shipwrecked; we’re

adrift in a quarter-boat.”

“Can you bring her alongside?”

“Ay, ay, sir!”

I threw out an oar, but trembled so violently that it was as much as I

could do to work it. We headed the boat for the steamer and rowed
toward her. As we approached, I perceived that she was very long,
bark-rigged, and raking, manifestly a powerful, iron-built ocean
steamer. They hung a red light on the forestay and a white light over
her port quarter, and lights flitted about her gangway.

A voice sung out: “How many are there of you?”

The boatswain answered: “Three men and a lady.”

On this the same voice called, “If you want help to bring that boat
alongside, we’ll send to you.”
“We’ll be alongside in a few minutes,” returned the boatswain.

But the fact was, the vessel had stopped her engines when further
off from us than we had imagined; being deceived by the magnitude
of her looming hull, which seemed to stand not a hundred fathoms
away from us, and by the wonderful distinctness of the voice that
had spoken us.

I did not know how feeble I had become until I took the oar; and
the violent emotions excited in me by our rescue, now to be effected
after our long and heavy trials, diminished still the little strength that
was left in me; so that the boat moved very slowly through the
water, and it was full twenty minutes starting from the time when we
had shipped oars, before we came up with her.

“We’ll fling you a rope’s end,” said a voice; “look out for it.”

A line fell into the boat. The boatswain caught it, and sung out, “All
fast!”

I looked up the high side of the steamer: there was a crowd of men
assembled round the gangway, their faces visible in the light shed
not only by our own masthead lantern (which was on a level with
the steamer’s bulwarks), but by other lanterns which some of them
held. In all this light we, the occupants of the boat, were to be
clearly viewed from the deck; and the voice that had first addressed
us said:
“Are you strong enough to get up the ladder? If not, we’ll sling you
on board.”

I answered that if a couple of hands would come down into the boat
so as to help the lady and a man (who had fallen imbecile) over the
ship’s side, the other two would manage to get on board without
assistance.

On this a short gangway-ladder was lowered, and two men

descended and got into the boat.

“Take that lady first,” I said, pointing to Mary, but holding on, as I
spoke, to the boat’s mast, for I felt horribly sick and faint, and knew
not, indeed, what was going to happen to me; and I had to exert all
my power to steady my voice.

They took her by the arms, and watching the moment when the
wash of the swell brought the boat against the ship’s side, landed
her cleverly on the ladder and helped her on to the deck.
 THE CAPTURE OF THE COTTON SHIP
(From Tom Cringle’s Log.)
By MICHAEL SCOTT.

The northwester still continued, with a clear

blue sky, without a cloud overhead by day,
and a bright, cold moon by night. It blew so
hard for the three succeeding days, that we
could not carry more than close-reefed
topsails to it, and a reefed foresail. Indeed,
toward six bells in the forenoon watch of
the third day, it came thundering down with such violence, and the
sea increased so much, that we had to hand the fore-topsail. This
was by no means an easy job. “Ease her a bit,” said the first
lieutenant,—“there,—shake the wind out of her sails for a moment,
until the men get the canvas in.” Whirl, a poor fellow pitched off the
lee foreyard-arm into the sea. “Up with the helm—heave him the
bight of a rope.” We kept away, but all was confusion, until an
American midshipman, one of the prisoners on board, hove the bight
of a rope at him. The man got it under his arms, and after hauling
him along for a hundred yards at the least—and one may judge of
the velocity with which he was dragged through the water, by the
fact that it took the united strain of ten powerful men to get him in—
he was brought safely on board, pale and blue, when we found that
the running of the rope had crushed in his broad chest, below his
arms, as if it had been a girl’s waist, indenting the very muscles of it
and of his back half an inch deep. He had to be bled before he could
breathe, and it was an hour before the circulation could be restored,
by the joint exertions of the surgeon and gun-room steward, chafing
him with spirits and camphor, after he had been stripped and stowed
away between the blankets in his hammock.

The same afternoon we fell in with a small prize to the squadron in

the Chesapeake, a dismantled schooner, manned by a prize crew of
a midshipman and six men. She had a signal of distress, an
American ensign, with the union down, hoisted on the jury-mast,
across which there was rigged a solitary lug-sail. It was blowing so
hard that we had some difficulty in boarding her, when we found
that she was a Baltimore pilot-boat-built schooner, of about seventy
tons burden, laden with flour, and bound for Bermuda. But three
days before, in a sudden squall, they had carried away both masts
short by the board, and the only spar which they had been able to
rig was a spare topmast, which they had jammed into one of the
pumps,—fortunately she was as tight as a bottle,—and stayed it the
best way they could. The captain offered to take the little fellow who
had charge of her, and his crew and cargo on board, and then
scuttle her; but no—all he wanted was a cask of water and some
biscuit; and having had a glass of grog, he trundled over the side
again, and returned to his desolate command. However, he
afterwards brought his prize safe into Bermuda.

The weather still continued very rough, but we saw nothing until the
second evening after this. The forenoon had been even more
boisterous than any of the preceding, and we were all fagged
enough with “Make sail,” and “Shorten sail,” and “All hands,” the
whole day through; and as the night fell, I found myself, for the
fourth time, in the maintop. The men had just lain in from the
maintopsail-yard, when we heard the watch called on deck,
—“Starboard watch, ahoy!”—which was a cheery sound to us of the
larboard, who were thus released from duty on deck and allowed to
go below.

The men were scrambling down the weather shrouds, and I was
preparing to follow them, when I jammed my left foot in the grating
of the top, and capsized on my nose. I had been up nearly the
whole of the previous night, and on deck the whole of the day, and
actively employed too, as during the greater part of it it blew a gale.
I stooped down in some pain, to see what had bolted me to the
grating; but I had no sooner extricated my foot than, overworked
and overfatigued as I was, I fell over in the soundest sleep that ever
I have enjoyed before or since, the back of my neck resting on a coil
of rope, so that my head hung down within it.

The rain all this time was beating on me, and I was drenched to the
skin. I must have slept for four hours or so, when I was awakened
by a rough thump on the side from the stumbling foot of the captain
of the top, the word having been passed to shake a reef out of the
topsails, the wind having rather suddenly gone down. It was done;
and now broad awake, I determined not to be caught napping again,
so I descended and swung myself in on deck out of the main
rigging, just as Mr. Treenail was mustering the crew at eight bells.
When I landed on the quarterdeck, there he stood abaft the
binnacle, with the light shining on his face, his glazed hat glancing,
and the raindrops sparkling at the brim of it. He had noticed me the
moment I descended.

“Heyday, Master Cringle, you are surely out of your watch. Why,
what are you doing here, eh?”

I stepped up to him and told him the truth, that, being over-
fatigued, I had fallen asleep in the top.

“Well, well, boy,” said he, “never mind, go below, and turn in; if you
don’t take your rest, you never will be a sailor.

“But what do you see aloft?” glancing his eye upwards, and all the
crew on deck, as I passed them, looked anxiously up also amongst
the rigging, as if wondering what I saw there, for I had been so
chilled in my snooze, that my neck, from resting in the cold on the
coil of rope, had become stiffened and rigid to an intolerable degree;
and although, when I first came on deck, I had, by a strong
exertion, brought my caput to its proper bearings, yet the moment I
was dismissed by my proper officer, I for my own comfort was glad
to conform to the contraction of the muscle, whereby I once more
staved along the deck, glowering up into the heavens as if I had
seen some wonderful sight there.

“What do you see aloft?” repeated Mr. Treenail, while the crew,
greatly puzzled, continued to follow my eyes, as they thought, and
to stare up into the rigging.

“Why, sir, I have thereby got a stiff neck—that’s all, sir.”

“Go and turn in at once, my good boy—make haste, now—tell our

steward to give you a glass of hot grog, and mind your hand that
you don’t get sick.”

I did as I was desired, swallowed the

grog, and turned in; but I could not
have been in bed above an hour, when
the drum beat to quarters, and I had
once more to bundle out on the cold
wet deck, where I found all excitement.
At the time I speak of, we had been
beaten by the Americans in several
actions of single ships, and our
discipline improved in proportion as we
came to learn by sad experience that
the enemy was not to be undervalued.
I found that there was a ship in sight,
right ahead of us—apparently carrying
all sail. A group of officers were on the
forecastle with night-glasses, the whole crew being stationed in dark
clusters round the guns at quarters. Several of the American
skippers were forward amongst us, and they were of opinion that
the chase was a man-of-war, although our own people seemed to
doubt this. One of the skippers insisted that she was the Hornet,
from the unusual shortness of her lower masts, and the immense
squareness of her yards. But the puzzle was, if it were the Hornet,
why she did not shorten sail. Still this might be accounted for, by her
either wishing to make out what we were before she engaged us, or
she might be clearing for action. At this moment a whole cloud of
studding-sails were blown from the yards as if the booms had been
carrots; and to prove that the chase was keeping a bright lookout,
she immediately kept away, and finally bore up dead before the
wind, under the impression, no doubt, that she would draw ahead of
us, from her gear being entire, before we could rig out our light sails
again.

And so she did for a time, but at length we got within gun-shot. The
American masters were now ordered below, the hatches were
clapped on, and the word was passed to see all clear. Our shot was
by this time flying over and over her, and it was evident she was not
a man-of-war. We peppered away—she could not even be a
privateer; we were close under her lee-quarter, and yet she had
never fired a shot; and her large swaggering Yankee ensign was now
run up to the peak, only to be hauled down the next moment.
Hurrah! a large cotton ship, from Charleston to Bourdeaux, prize to
H.M.S. Torch.

She was taken possession of, and proved to be the Natches, of four
hundred tons burden, fully loaded with cotton.

By the time we got the crew on board, and the second lieutenant,
with a prize crew of fifteen men, had taken charge, the weather
began to lower again; nevertheless we took the prize in tow, and
continued on our voyage for the next three days, without anything
particular happening. It was the middle watch, when I was startled
by a violent jerking of my hammock, and a cry “that the brig was
amongst the breakers.” I ran on deck in my shirt, where I found all
hands, and a scene of confusion such as I never had witnessed
before. The gale had increased, yet the prize had not been cast off,
and the consequence was, that by some mismanagement or
carelessness, the sway of the large ship had suddenly hove the brig
in the wind, and taken the sails aback. We accordingly fetched stern
away, and ran foul of the prize, and there we were, in a heavy sea,
with our stern grinding against the cotton ship’s high quarter.

The mainboom, by the first rasp that took place after I came on
deck, was broken short off, and nearly twelve feet of it hove right in
over the taffrail; the vessels then closed, and the next rub ground
off the ship’s mizzen channel as clean as if it had been sawed away.
Officers shouting, men swearing, rigging cracking, the vessels
crashing and thumping together, I thought we were gone, when the
first lieutenant seized his trumpet—“Silence, men; hold your
tongues, you cowards, and mind the word of command!”

The effect was magical. “Brace round the foreyard; round with it—
set the jib—that’s it—foretopmast staysail—haul—never mind if the
gale takes it out of the bolt rope”—a thundering flap, and away it
flew in truth down to leeward, like a puff of white smoke. “Never
mind, men, the jib stands. Belay all that—down with the helm, now
don’t you see she has stern way yet? Zounds! we shall be smashed
to atoms if you don’t mind your hands, you lubbers—main-topsail
sheets let fly—there she pays off, and has headway once more,
that’s it—right your helm now—never mind his spanker-boom, the
fore-stay will stand it—there—up with helm, sir—we have cleared
him—hurrah!” And a near thing it was too, but we soon had
everything snug; and although the gale continued without any
intermission for ten days, at length we ran in and anchored with our
prize in Five Fathom Hole, off the entrance to St. George’s Harbor.

It was lucky for us that we got to anchor at the time we did, for that
same afternoon, one of the most tremendous gales of wind from the
westward came on that I ever saw. Fortunately it was steady and did
not veer about, and having good ground-tackle down, we rode it out
well enough. The effect was very uncommon; the wind was howling
over our mastheads, and amongst the cedar bushes on the cliffs
above, while on deck it was nearly calm, and there was very little
swell, being a weather shore; but half a mile out at sea all was white
foam, and the tumbling waves seemed to meet from north and
south, leaving a space of smooth water under the lee of the island,
shaped like the tail of a comet, tapering away, and gradually
roughening and becoming more stormy, until the roaring billows
once more owned allegiance to the genius of the storm. Then we
rode, with three anchors ahead, in safety through the night; and
next day, availing of a temporary lull, we ran up, and anchored off
the Tanks. Three days after this, the American frigate President was
brought in by the Endymion, and the rest of the squadron.
 TREASURE ISLAND

Jim Hawkins, the boy hero of Stevenson’s tale, had sailed with a
party of adventuresome gentlemen on the ship Hispaniola, to find
the pirate gold which, as they had private proof, lay buried on
Treasure Island. Unfortunately, the crew was largely composed of
ruffians, who had themselves been pirates, and who also knew of
the buried treasure. On reaching the island, these fellows mutinied
and tried to kill brave Captain Smollett and the party of gold-seekers.
As their only means of safety the latter went ashore and entrenched
themselves in a stockade which former visitors had built there; while
the Hispaniola, anchored in the harbor, fell into the hands of the
pirates, who promptly hoisted the black flag. One foggy night Jim,
who was an adventurous and inquisitive lad, secretly stole out from
the stockade and found hidden in a cove a tiny home-made boat,
clumsy and queer. This boat was “buoyant and clever in a sea-way,
but the most cross-grained, lopsided craft to manage. Turning round
and round was the manœuvre she was best at.” However, he
managed to paddle out to the Hispaniola, intending to cut her
moorings. With some difficulty he accomplished this design, but
immediately a change of wind and current seized both ship and
coracle, and sent them spinning out through the narrows towards
open sea. Expecting to be dashed in pieces on some bar or in the
raging breakers, Jim lay down helpless, and overcome by weariness
and anxiety fell asleep. “The Cruise of the Coracle” begins at this
point.
 THE CRUISE OF THE CORACLE
(From Treasure Island.)
By ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON.

It was broad day when I awoke, and found

myself tossing at the southwest end of
Treasure Island. The sun was up, but was
still hid from me behind the great bulk of
the Spy-glass, which on this side descended
almost to the sea in formidable cliffs.
Haulbowline Head and Mizzenmast Hill were
at my elbow; the hill bare and dark, the
head bound with cliffs forty or fifty feet
high, and fringed with great masses of
fallen rock. I was scarce a quarter of a mile
to seaward, and it was my first thought to
paddle in and land.

That notion was soon given over. Among the fallen rocks the
breakers spouted and bellowed; loud reverberations, heavy sprays
flying and falling, succeeded one another from second to second;
and I saw myself, if I ventured nearer, dashed to death upon the
rough shore, or spending my strength in vain to scale the beetling
crags.

Nor was that all; for crawling together on flat tables of rock, or
letting themselves drop into the sea with loud reports, I beheld huge
slimy monsters—soft snails, as it were, of incredible bigness—two or
three score of them together, making the rocks to echo with their
barkings.

I have understood since that they were sea-lions, and entirely

harmless. But the look of them, added to the difficulty of the shore
and the high running of the surf, was more than enough to disgust
me of that landing-place. I felt willing rather to starve at sea than to
confront such perils.

In the meantime I had a better chance, as I supposed, before me.

North of Haulbowline Head, the land runs in a long way, leaving, at
low tide, a long stretch of yellow sand. To the north of that, again,
there comes another cape—Cape of the Woods, as it was marked
upon the chart—buried in tall green pines, which descended to the
margin of the sea.

I remembered what Silver had said about the current that sets
northward along the whole west coast of Treasure Island; and
seeing from my position that I was already under its influence, I
preferred to leave Haulbowline Head behind me, and reserve my
strength for an attempt to land upon the kindlier-looking Cape of the
Woods.

There was a great, smooth swell upon the sea. The wind blowing
steady and gentle from the south, there was no contrariety between
that and the current, and the billows rose and fell unbroken.

Had it been otherwise, I must long ago have perished; but as it was,
it is surprising how easily and securely my little and light boat could
ride. Often, as I still lay at the bottom, and kept no more than an
eye above the gunwale, I would see a big blue summit heaving close
above me; yet the coracle would but bounce a little, dance as if on
springs, and subside on the other side into the trough as lightly as a
bird.

I began after a little to grow very bold, and sat up to try my skill at
paddling. But even a small change in the disposition of the weight
will produce violent changes in the behavior of a coracle. And I had
hardly moved before the boat, giving up at once her gentle dancing
movement, ran straight down a slope of water so steep that it made
me giddy, and struck her nose, with a spout of spray, deep into the
side of the next wave.

I was drenched and terrified, and fell instantly back into my old
position, whereupon the coracle seemed to find her head again, and
led me as softly as before among the billows. It was plain she was
not to be interfered with, and at that rate, since I could in no way
influence her course, what hope had I left of reaching land?

I began to be horribly frightened, but I kept my head, for all that.

First, moving with all care, I gradually baled out the coracle with my
sea-cap; then getting my eye once more above the gunwale, I set
myself to study how it was she managed to slip so quietly through
the rollers.

I found each wave, instead of the big, smooth, glossy mountain it

looks from shore, or from a vessel’s deck, was for all the world like
any range of hills on the dry land, full of peaks and smooth places
and valleys. The coracle, left to herself, turning from side to side,
threaded, so to speak, her way through these lower parts, and
avoided the steep slopes and higher, toppling summits of the waves.

“Well, now,” thought I to myself, “it is plain I must lie where I am,
and not disturb the balance; but it is plain, also, that I can put the
paddle over the side, and from time to time, in smooth places, give
her a shove or two towards land.” No sooner thought upon than
done. There I lay on my elbows, in the most trying attitude, and
every now and again gave a weak stroke or two to turn her head to
shore.

It was very tiring, and slow to work, yet I did visibly gain ground;
and, as we drew near the Cape of the Woods, though I saw I must
infallibly miss that point, I had still made some hundred yards of
easting. I was, indeed, close in. I could see the cool, green tree-tops
swaying together in the breeze, and I felt sure I should make the
next promontory without fail.

It was high time, for I now began to be tortured with thirst. The
glow of the sun from above, its thousand-fold reflection from the
waves, the sea-water that fell and dried upon me, caking my very
lips with salt, combined to make my throat burn and my brain ache.
The sight of the trees so near at hand had almost made me sick with
longing; but the current had soon carried me past the point; and, as
the next reach of sea opened out, I beheld a sight that changed the
nature of my thoughts.

Right in front of me, not half a mile away, I beheld the Hispaniola
under sail. I made sure, of course, that I should be taken; but I was
so distressed for want of water, that I scarce knew whether to be
glad or sorry at the thought; and, long before I had come to a
conclusion, surprise had taken entire possession of my mind, and I
could do nothing but stare and wonder.

The Hispaniola was under her mainsail and two jibs, and the
beautiful white canvas shone in the sun like snow or silver. When I
first sighted her, all her sails were drawing; she was lying a course
about north-west; and I presumed the men on board were going
round the island on their way back to the anchorage. Presently she
began to fetch more and more to the westward, so that I thought
they had sighted me and were going about in chase. At last,
however, she fell right into the wind’s eye, was taken dead aback,
and stood there a while helpless, with her sails shivering.

“Clumsy fellows,” said I; “they must still be drunk as owls.” And I

thought how Captain Smollett would have set them skipping.

Meanwhile, the schooner gradually fell off, and filled again upon
another tack, sailed swiftly for a minute or so, and brought up once
more dead in the wind’s eye. Again and again was this repeated. To
and fro, up and down, north, south, east, and west, the Hispaniola
sailed by swoops and dashes, and at each repetition ended as she
had begun, with idly-flapping canvas. It became plain to me that
nobody was steering. And, if so, where were the men? Either they
were dead drunk, or had deserted her, I thought, and perhaps if I
could get on board, I might return the vessel to her captain.

The current was bearing coracle and schooner southward at an

equal rate. As for the latter’s sailing, it was so wild and intermittent,
and she hung each time so long in stays, that she certainly gained
nothing, if she did not even lose. If only I dared to sit up and
paddle, I made sure that I could overhaul her. The scheme had an
air of adventure that inspired me, and the thought of the water
beaker beside the fore companion doubled my growing courage.

Up I got, was welcomed almost instantly by another cloud of spray,

but this time stuck to my purpose; and set myself, with all my
strength and caution, to paddle after the unsteered Hispaniola. Once
I shipped a sea so heavy that I had to stop and bale, with my heart
fluttering like a bird; but gradually I got into the way of the thing,
and guided my coracle among the waves, with only now and then a
blow upon her bows and a dash of foam in my face.

I was now gaining rapidly on the schooner; I could see the brass
glisten on the tiller as it banged about; and still no soul appeared
upon her decks. I could not choose but suppose she was deserted.
If not, the men were lying drunk below, where I might batten them
down, perhaps, and do what I chose with the ship.

For some time she had been doing the worst thing possible for me—
standing still. She headed nearly due south, yawing, of course, all
the time. Each time she fell off her sails partly filled, and these
brought her, in a moment, right to the wind again. I have said this
was the worst thing possible for me; for helpless as she looked in
this situation, with the canvas cracking like cannon, and the blocks
trundling and banging on the deck, she still continued to run away
from me, not only with the speed of the current, but by the whole
amount of her leeway, which was naturally great.

But now, at last, I had my chance. The breeze fell, for some
seconds, very low, and the current gradually turning her, the
Hispaniola revolved slowly round her centre, and at last presented
me her stern, with the cabin window still gaping open, and the lamp
over the table still burning on into the day. The mainsail hung
drooped like a banner. She was stock-still, but for the current.

For the last little while I had even lost; but now redoubling my
efforts, I began once more to overhaul the chase.

I was not a hundred yards from her when the wind came again in a
clap; she filled on the port tack, and was off again, stooping and
skimming like a swallow.

My first impulse was one of despair, but my second was towards joy.
Round she came, till she was broadside on to me—round still till she
had covered a half, and then two-thirds, and then three-quarters of
the distance that separated us. I could see the waves boiling white
under her forefoot. Immensely tall she looked to me from my low
station in the coracle.

And then, of a sudden, I began to comprehend. I had scarce time to

think—scarce time to act and save myself. I was on the summit of
one swell when the schooner came stooping over the next. The
bowsprit was over my head. I sprang to my feet, and leaped,
stamping the coracle under water. With one hand I caught the jib-
boom, while my foot was lodged between the stay and the brace;
and as I still clung there panting, a dull blow told me that the
schooner had charged down upon and struck the coracle, and that I
was left without retreat on the Hispaniola.
 THE LANDING ON THE ISLAND
(From The Swiss Family Robinson.)
By JEAN RUDOLF WYSS.

For many days we had been tempest-

tossed. Six times had the darkness
closed over a wild and terrific scene,
and returning light as often brought
but renewed distress, for the raging
storm increased in fury until on the
seventh day all hope was lost. We were
driven completely out of our course; no
conjecture could be formed as to our
whereabouts. The crew had lost heart,
and were utterly exhausted by
incessant labor....

My heart sank as I looked round upon my family in the midst of

these horrors. Our four young sons were overpowered by terror.
“Dear children,” said I, “if the Lord will, he can save us even from
this fearful peril; if not, let us calmly yield our lives into his hand,
and think of the joy and blessedness of finding ourselves forever and
ever united in that happy home above.”

At these words my weeping wife looked bravely up, and, as the boys
clustered round her, she began to cheer and encourage them with
calm and loving words. I rejoiced to see her fortitude, though my
heart was ready to break as I gazed on my dear ones....
Amid the roar of the thundering waves I suddenly heard the cry of
“Land, land!” while at the same instant the ship struck with a
frightful shock, which threw everyone to the deck, and seemed to
threaten her immediate destruction.

Dreadful sounds betokened the breaking up of the ship, and the

roaring waters poured in on all sides.

Then the voice of the captain was heard above the tumult, shouting,
“Lower away the boats! We are lost!”...

Throughout the night my wife and I maintained our prayerful watch,

dreading at every fresh sound some fatal change in the position of
the wreck.

At length the faint dawn of day appeared, the long, weary night was
over, and with thankful hearts we perceived that the gale had begun
to moderate; blue sky was seen above us, and the lovely hues of
sunrise adorned the eastern horizon.

I aroused the boys, and we assembled on the remaining portion of

the deck, when they, to their surprise, discovered that no one else
was on board.

“Hallo, papa! what has become of everybody? Are the sailors gone?
Have they taken away the boats? Oh, papa! why did they leave us
behind? What can we do by ourselves?”

“My good children,” I replied, “we must not despair, although we

seem deserted. See how those on whose skill and good faith we
depended have left us cruelly to our fate in the hour of danger. God
will never do so. He has not forsaken us, and we will trust him still.
Only let us bestir ourselves, and each cheerily do his best. Let each
try to procure what will be of most use to us.”...

Fritz brought out a couple of guns, shot belt, powder flasks, and
plenty of bullets.
Ernest produced a cap full of nails, an axe and a hammer, while
pinchers, chisels, and augers stuck out of all his pockets.

Little Franz carried a box, and eagerly began to show us the “nice
sharp little hooks” it contained. “Well done, Franz,” cried I; “these
fish-hooks, which you, the youngest, have found, may contribute
more than anything else in the ship to save our lives by procuring
food for us. Fritz and Ernest, you have chosen well.”

“Will you praise me, too?” said my dear wife. “I have nothing to
show, but I can give you good news. Some useful animals are still
alive; a cow, a donkey, two goats, six sheep, a ram and a fine sow. I
was but just in time to save their lives by taking food to them.”

“All these things are excellent indeed,” said I; “but my friend Jack
here has presented me with a couple of huge, hungry, useless dogs,
who will eat more than any of us.”

“Oh, papa, they will be of use! Why, they will help us to hunt when
we get on shore!”

“No doubt they will, if ever we do get on shore, Jack; but I must say
I don’t know how it is to be done.”

“Can’t we each get into a big tub, and float there?” returned he. “I
have often sailed splendidly like that, round the pond at home.”

“My child, you have hit on a capital idea,” cried I. “Now, Ernest, let
me have your tools, hammers, nails, saws, augers, and all; and then
make haste to collect any tubs you can find!”

We very soon found four large casks, made of sound wood, and
strongly bound with iron hoops; they were floating with many other
things in the water in the hold, but we managed to fish them out,
and drag them to a suitable place for launching them. They were
exactly what I wanted, and I succeeded in sawing them across the
middle. Hard work it was, and we were glad enough to stop and
refresh ourselves with wine and biscuits.

My eight tubs now stood ranged in a row near the water’s edge, and
I looked at them with great satisfaction; to my surprise, my wife did
not seem to share my pleasure!

“I shall never,” said she, “muster courage to get into one of those!”

“Do not be too sure of that, dear wife; when you see my contrivance
completed, you will perhaps prefer it to this immovable wreck.”...

All being ready, we cast off, and moved away from the wreck. My
good, brave wife sat in the first compartment of the boat; next her
was Franz, a pretty little boy, nearly eight years old. Then came
Fritz, a handsome, spirited young fellow of fifteen; the two centre
tubs contained the valuable cargo; then came our bold, thoughtless
Jack; next him Ernest, my second son, intelligent, well-formed, and
rather indolent. I myself, the anxious, loving father, stood in the
stern, endeavoring to guide the raft with its precious burden to a
safe landing-place.

The elder boys took the oars; every one wore a float belt, and had
something useful close to him in case of being thrown into the water.

The tide was flowing, which was a great help to the young oarsmen.
We emerged from the wreck and glided into the open sea. All eyes
were strained to get a full view of the land, and the boys pulled with
a will; but for some time we made no progress, as the boat kept
turning round and round, until I hit upon the right way to steer it,
after which we merrily made for the shore.

We had left two large dogs, Turk and Juno, on the wreck, as being
both large mastiffs we did not care to have their additional weight
on board our craft; but when they saw us apparently deserting
them, they set up a piteous howl, and sprang into the sea. I was
sorry to see this, for the distance to the land was so great that I
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