Internal Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines

Lecture-1 Air Standard Cycles

 Heat engines

Heat Engines
Internal Combustion Engines External Combustion Engines

Rotary Reciprocating Rotary Reciprocating

Open Wankel Spark Compression Steam Closed Steam Stirling
cycle gas engine ignition ignition (CI) turbine cycle gas engine engine
turbine (SI) engine turbine
engine
 Air standard cycles
 An internal combustion(IC) engine can undergo a sequence of
thermodynamic processes.

 The IC does not operate on a thermodynamic cycle as it involves an open

system. However, it is often possible to analyse the open cycle although it is
a closed one. Because it is assumed that one or more processes would bring
the state of the working fluid from final state to initial state.

 Since the accurate analysis of IC engine is complicated, it is better to

analyze the performance of the idealized cycle that is close to the real cycle.
Such kind of idealized cycle is known as air standard cycle.

 Air standard cycles are the following;

 (i) Carnot cycle (ii) Otto cycle (iii) Diesel cycle (iv) Dual cycle (v) Brayton
cycle (vi) Striling cycle (vii) Ericsson cycle (viii) Lenoir cycle (ix) Atkinson
cycle
 Assumptions
 The working fluid is assumed to be a perfect gas (air) which follows
the perfect gas equation pV=mRT

 There is no change in the mass of the working fluid

 All the processes that constitute the cycle are reversible

 Heat is supplied from a high temperature heat source and rejected to a

low temperature heat sink

 There are no heat losses from the system to the surroundings

 The working fluid has constant specific heats throughout the cycle

 The physical constants of air such Cp, Cv and R are considered at

standard atmospheric conditions.
 Carnot cycle

 Carnot cycle is one of the air standard cycles. It was proposed by a French
engineer, Sadi Carnot in 1824.

 It is an ideal cycle of all thermodynamic cycle because it gives maximum

efficiency between two temperature difference.

 The cycle consists of two isothermal and two reversible adiabatic

processes.

 In Carnot cycle analysis we assume that air is used as the working fluid
and it complete a cyclic process.

 The Carnot engine is operated on the Carnot cycle.

 Carnot engine

Perfect insulation /
perfect conductor
T2 K

T1 K
Piston
 Carnot engine comprises of a piston and cylinder assembly. A high
temperature heat source at T3 and a low temperature heat sink at T1 are
used to supply heat and receive heat respectively.
 Let us assume that initially, heat is transferred from a high temperature
heat source (T3). The working fluid in the cylinder expands.
 Now the cylinder head is sealed and it acts as a perfect insulator. The
working fluid in the cylinder is now allowed to expand further.
 The piston and cylinder assembly is now brought into contact with a low
temperature sink (T1) as the cylinder is now made to act as a perfect heat
conductor.
 Some heat is rejected to the sink without changing the temperature of sink.
Due to this, the working fluid is compressed.
 Finally, the cylinder is made again to act as a perfect insulator and the
working fluid is compressed adiabatically.
 This forms a complete Carnot cycle.
 3
T3= T4 4

T1= T2 2 1

S
 Work done by the system during the cycle/
ηCarnot =
Heat supplied to the system during the cycle

 We know that Work done = Heat supplied- heat rejected

 W = Qs-Qr

 Consider the process 1-2 and 3-4

 We shall write the heat rejection and heat supplied equations as follows;

 QR = mRT1 loge(V1/V2) (1)

 QS = mRT3 loge(V4/V3) (2)

 Considering adiabatic processes 2-3 and 4-1 and applying p-V-T

relationship between two states we get;
 T1 is normally the ambient or atmospheric temperature which is fixed.

 Since this temperature is fixed, the method of increasing thermal efficiency

can be achieved by increasing the source temperature.

 Carnot cycle has the maximum possible efficiency between two fixed
temperatures compared to other air standard cycles.

 Carnot cycle is not suitable to operate a practical engine with a gaseous

working fluid because the work output from this cycle is low.

 Mean effective pressure (pm or mep) is the hypothetical constant pressure

acting on the piston during its expansion stroke producing the same work
output as that from the actual cycle.

 Pm = Work output / Swept volume

(Area of the indicator diagram x constant)

 It can also be given as Pm =
Length of the diagram
 Otto cycle

 The main disadvantage of the Carnot cycle is its impractibility due to high
pressure and high volume ratios with relatively low mean effective
pressure.

 Nicolaus Otto (1876) proposed a constant volume heat addition cycle

which forms the basis for the today’s petrol engines [spark ignition(SI)
engines)].

 Otto cycle consists of two constant volume and two isentropic processes.

 Heat addition and heat rejection take place at constant volume.

Compression and expansion take place at isentropic processes.

 The Otto cycle is also called as constant volume cycle.

 Process 1-2 Isentropic compression
 Process 2-3 Constant volume heat addition
 Process 3-4 Isentropic expansion
 Process 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
Process 1-2 : Isentropic compression:

In this process, the working fluid compressed isentropically. As a result, the

temperature of it increases from T1 to T2 and pressure increases from p1 to p2.
The volume decreases from V1 to V2 . The isentropic compression work is
given in this process is given as follows;

Wc = W1-2 = (p1V1-p2V2)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is added at constant volume to
the compressed air. Because of this heat addition, T2 to T3 and pressure
increase from p2 to p3. Volume of the working fluid remains same. The amount
of heat added to the working fluid at constant volume is given below;

Qs = Q2-3 = mCv (T3-T2) kJ

Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion

During this process, the working fluid expands isentropically. As a result of
this, temperature decreases from T3 to T4 and pressure decreases from p3 to
p4. Volume of the working fluid increases from V3 to V4 .
The isentropic expansion work is given in this process is given as follows;

We = W3-4 = (p3V3-p4V4)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is rejected from the working
fluid at a constant volume. Because of this heat rejection, temperature
decreases T4 to T1 and pressure also decreases from p4 to p1. Volume of
the working fluid remains same. The amount of heat rejected from the
working fluid at a constant volume is given below;

Qr = Q4-1 = mCv (T4-T1) kJ

Heat supplied, Qs=mCv(T3-T2)

Heat rejection, Qr=mCv(T4-T1)

Net work output = Qs - Qr

Net work output = mCv(T3-T2) - mCv(T4-T1)

Process 1-2 Isentropic compression:
 In the Otto cycle, the work output is directly proportional to pressure
ratio, rp. The mean effective pressure which is an indication of the
internal work output increases with a pressure ratio at a fixed value of
compression ratio and ratio of specific heats.

 The increase in the compression ratio results in an increase in mean

effective pressure and the thermal efficiency.
 Diesel cycle
 Diesel cycle is often referred to as constant pressure heat addition cycle.

 This because the heat addition takes place at constant pressure.

 Heat rejection takes place at constant volume.

 However, this term can be avoided as Joule cycle

Process 1-2 : Isentropic compression:
In this process, the working fluid compressed isentropically. As a result, the
temperature of it increases from T1 to T2 and pressure increases from p1 to p2.
The volume decreases from V1 to V2 . The isentropic compression work is
given in this process is given as follows;

Wc = W1-2 = (p1V1-p2V2)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is added at constant pressure to
the compressed air. Because of this heat addition, T2 to T3, and volume
increases from V2 to V3 . Pressure of the working fluid remains same. The
amount of heat added to the working fluid at constant pressure is given
below;

Qs = Q2-3 = Cp (T3-T2) kJ

Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion

During this process, the working fluid expands isentropically. As a result of
this, temperature decreases from T3 to T4 and pressure decreases from p3 to
p4. Volume of the working fluid increases from V3 to V4 .
The isentropic expansion work is given in this process is given as follows;

We = W3-4 = (p3V3-p4V4)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is rejected from the working
fluid at a constant volume. Because of this heat rejection, temperature
decreases T4 to T1, and pressure also decreases from p4 to p1. Volume of
the working fluid remains same. The amount of heat rejected from the
working fluid at a constant volume is given below;

Qr = Q4-1 = mCv (T4-T1) kJ

Heat supplied, Qs=mCp(T3-T2)

Heat rejection, Qr=mCv(T4-T1)

Net work output of the cycle =W= Qs-Qr kJ/kg

W= mCp(T3-T2)-mCv(T4-T1) kJ/kg
 Air standard efficiency of diesel cycle :

Air standard efficiency of diesel cycle = Net work output/heat supplied

ηdiesel = Qs-Qr/Qs

ηdiesel = 1-Qr/Qs

Cv(T4-T1) (1)
ηdiesel = 1-
Cp(T3-T2)

(T4-T1) (2)
ηdiesel = 1-
Υ(T3-T2)
Process 1-2 Isentropic compression:
(3)
Consider process 2-3

In constant pressure process;

V/T = C

Applying this at two states 2 and 3

We get

(V2/T2) = (V3/T3)

Or (V3/V2) = (T3/T2) = rc

rc = Cut off ratio

T3= rcT2 (4)

Substitute T2 expression from Eqn (3) in this Eqn (4); (5)

(Υ-1)
T3= rcT1 r
Consider process 3-4
(6)

Substituting (V3/V2 as “rc “ and (V2/V4) as “r” in Eqn.(6)

We will get;

(7)

Substituting T2, T3 and T4 in Eqn.(2) and simplifying will get;

ηdiesel = (8)
 (9)
Mean effective pressure

mep (or) Pm = Net work put / Swept volume

(10)
Dual cycle
Process 1-2 : Isentropic compression:

In this process, the working fluid compressed isentropically. As a result, the

temperature of it increases from T1 to T2 and pressure increases from p1 to p2.
The volume decreases from V1 to V2 . The isentropic compression work is
given in this process is given as follows;

Wc = W1-2 = (p1V1-p2V2)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition

During this process, a certain amount of heat is added at constant volume to

the compressed air. Because of this heat addition, T2 to T3 and pressure
increase from p2 to p3. Volume of the working fluid remains same. The amount
of heat added to the working fluid at constant volume is given below;

Qs1 = Q2-3 = mCv (T3-T2) kJ

Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat addition:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is added at constant

pressure to the compressed air. Because of this heat addition, T3 to T3,
and volume increases from V2 to V3 . Pressure of the working fluid
remains same. The amount of heat added to the working fluid at constant
pressure is given below;

Qs2 = Cp (T4-T3) kJ

Process 4-5 Isentropic expansion

During this process, the working fluid expands isentropically. As a result

of this, temperature decreases from T4 to T5 and pressure decrease from
p4 to p5. Volume of the working fluid increases from V4 to V5 .

Isentropic expansion work;

W4-5 = (p4V4-p5V5)/(Υ-1)
The isentropic expansion work is given in this process is given as follows;

We = W3-4 = (p3V3-p4V4)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 5-1: Constant volume heat rejection:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is rejected from the working
fluid at a constant volume. Because of this heat rejection, temperature
decreases T5 to T1, and pressure also decreases from p5 to p1. Volume of
the working fluid remains same. The amount of heat rejected from the
working fluid at a constant volume is given below;

Qr = Q5-1 = mCv (T5-T1) kJ

Heat supplied, Qs=mCv(T3-T2) + mCp(T4-T3)

Heat rejection, Qr=mCv(T5-T1)

 Net work output of the cycle =W= Qs-Qr kJ/kg
W= mCp(T3-T2)+mCv(T4-T3) - mCv(T5-T4) kJ/kg
𝑄𝑠−Qr
ηdual = (1)
𝑄𝑟
𝑚Cp(T3−T2)+mCv(T4−T3)−mCv(T5−T4)
Dual cycle efficiency ηdual =
𝑚𝐶𝑝 T3−T2 + 𝑚𝐶𝑣(T4−T3)

𝑚Cp(T3−T2)+mCv(T4−T3)−mCv(T5−T4)
ηdual =
𝑚𝐶𝑝 T3−T2 + 𝑚𝐶𝑣(T4−T3)

(T5−T4)
=1− (2)
T3−T2 + Υ(T4−T3)
Process 1-2 Isentropic compression:

(3)
Process 2-3 Constant volume process

P
=C
T

P2 = P3
T2 T 3

T3 = P3
T2 P 2

P3
𝑇3 = T2 x P2 P3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑟𝑝= P2

𝑇3 = T2 x 𝑟𝑝

𝑇3 = T1 r(Υ-1) 𝑟𝑝
(4)
Process 3-4 Constant pressure process

V4
Let cut − off ratio rc= V3

V4
T4=T3 V3

T4=T3 rc

Substituting for T3 from Eqn (4)

𝑇4 = T1 rc r(Υ-1) 𝑟𝑝 (5)

Process 4-5 Isentropic expansion process

𝑇5 = T4 (V4/V5)(Υ-1) (6)

𝑇5 = T1rp rc r(Υ-1) (V4/V5)(Υ-1) (7)

V4 V4
V5 = V1

V4 V4 V3
V5 = x
V3 V1 (8)

V4 V4 V2
V5 = V3 x V1 As V2= V3

V4 rc
V5 = r (9)

Where
V4 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
V5

𝑇5 = T1rp rc r(Υ-1) [(rc/r)](Υ-1) (10)

𝑇5 = T1rp rc Υ-1
ηdual =
Brayton cycle

In Brayton cycle , heat is added and rejected at constant pressure.

1-2 Isentropic compression

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
Process 1-2 : Isentropic compression:

In this process, the working fluid compressed isentropically. As a result, the

temperature of the working fluid increases from T1 to T2 and pressure
increases from p1 to p2. The volume decreases from V1 to V2 . The isentropic
compression work is given in this process is given as follows;

Wc = W1-2 = (p1V1-p2V2)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is added at constant pressure to

the compressed air. Because of this heat addition, T3 to T3, and volume
increases from V2 to V3 . Pressure of the working fluid remains same. The
amount of heat added to the working fluid at constant pressure is given below;

Q = Cp (T3-T2) kJ
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion
During this process, the working fluid expands isentropically. As a result of this,
temperature decreases from T3 to T4 and pressure decreases from p3 to p4.
Volume of the working fluid increases from V3 to V4 .

The isentropic expansion work is given in this process is given as follows;

We = W3-4 = (p3V3-p4V4)/(Υ-1) kJ

Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection:

During this process, a certain amount of heat is rejected from the working fluid at
a constant pressure. Because of this heat rejection, temperature decreases T4 to
T1, and volume also decreases from p4 to p1. Volume of the working fluid remains
same. The amount of heat rejected from the working fluid at a constant volume is
given below;

Qr = W4-1 = mCp (T4-T1) kJ

Heat supplied, Qs=mCp(T3-T2)

Heat rejection, Qr=mCp(T4-T1)

Net work output = Qs - Qr

Net work output = mCp(T3-T2) - mCp(T4-T1)

η Brayton = (Heat supplied-heat rejected )/Heat supplied

η Brayton = (Qs-Qr)/Qs

η Brayton = [mCp(T3-T2) - mCp(T4-T1)] / mCp(T3-T2)

η Brayton = (T3-T2) - (T4-T1) / (T3-T2)

(T4−T1)
η Brayton = 1 −
(T3−T2)
 Taking T1 and T2 as common factor in the numerator and denominators respectively

(T4−T1)
η Brayton = 1 −
(T3−T2)

𝑇 (T T −1)
η Brayton = 1 − 𝑇 1(T 4/T 1−1)
2 3/ 2

Process 1-2 Isentropic compression

𝑇2
T1= −
r( γ 1 )

Similarly in Process 3-4 Isentropic expansion

𝑇3 (𝑝3) Υ_1/Υ
= _1/Υ
T4 (𝑝4) Υ
Process 3-4 Isentropic expansion

𝑇3 (𝑝2) Υ_1/Υ
= _1/Υ
T4 (𝑝 1 ) Υ

(or)

Substituting the expressions in the air standard efficiency equation,

we will get;

1
η Brayton = 1 - −
)
r(
γ 1
r=𝑉1
𝑉2
1 γ
𝑝2 /
r= 1 γ
(𝑝 1) /

r=(𝑟𝑝)1/γ

1
ηBrayton =
(𝑟 𝑝 )1/γ
Problem 1:
An engine working on Otto cycle has the pressure at the beginning as 1 bar
and at the end as 12.5 bar. Calculate the compression ratio and the air
standard efficiency of the engine. Take the ratio of the specific heats of air
as 1.4.

ηotto =1- [1/(r) γ-1]

r= (V1/V2) or r =(p2/p1)1/γ
Problem 2:
In an ideal Otto cycle engine, the temperature and pressure at the
beginning of compression are 43oC and 100 kPa respectively and the
temperature at the end of adiabatic compression is 323°C. If the
temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition is 1,500oC,
calculate : (a) the compression ratio,' (b) the air-standard efficiency,
and (c) the temperature and pressure at the end of adiabatic expansion.
Assume γ =1.4 for air.

P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 43 + 273 = 316

T2= 323 + 273 = 596 K;
T3 = 1,500 + 273 = 1,773 K.
(γ -1 )
We know that T2/T1= (V1/V2)
(γ -1 )
(r) = T2/T1
(1/ γ-1)
Calculate compression ratio. r=(T2/T1)
r= 4.5-4.8
Calculate the air standard efficiency of Otto cycle now.
r= 4.5-4.8
γ -1
ηotto = (1/r)

ηotto =
γ
Calculate pressure at p2 using pV = constant
γ γ
p1V1= p2V2
γ
p2 = p1(V1/V2)
γ
p2 = p1(r)
Consider process 2-3 Constant volume heat addition;
V= Constant or (P/T) = Constant
(p2/T2) = (p3/T3)
Calculate p3=
Consider process 3-4 Isentropic expansion;

Calculate pressure at p4 using pV = constant

γ γ
p3V3= p4V4
γ γ
p4 = p3(V3/V4) We know (V4/V3) = r

Calculate p4=

Consider process 3-4

(γ-1)
Apply TV =Constant

(γ-1) (γ-1)
T3V3 =T4V4

Calculate T4 using the above equation.

Problem 3:

In an engine working on the ideal Otto cycle, the pressure and temperature
at the beginning of compression are 100 kPa and 40°C respectively. If the
air-standard efficiency of the engine is 50%, determine; (i) the
compression ratio, and (ii) the pressure and temperature at the end of
adiabatic compression. Assume γ for air as 1.4.

p1= 100 kPa, T1= 40 + 273 = 313 K

Air standard efficiency = 1- [1/(r) γ-1]

ηotto =1- [1/(r) γ-1]

0.5 =1- [1/(r) 1.4-1]

r0.4= 2

Taking log on both sides and calculating r

We get r value as r=

Consider process 1-2 isentropic compression;

γ
Apply pV = Constant in for states 1 and 2;
γ γ
p1V1= p2V2
Calculate p2.
γ-1
Again consider process 1-2 and apply TV = Constant
γ-1 γ-1
We will get T1V1 = T2V2
Calculate T2=
Diesel Cycle Problem 1:

Determine the ideal cycle efficiency of the diesel engine having a cylinder
with bore 250mm and stroke 375mm and a clearance volume of 1500cc
with fuel cut-off occurring at 5% of the stroke. Assume the ratio of Cp and
Cv as 1.4, calculate the air standard efficiency of the cycle.

Given : d= 250 mm ; L=375mm Vc= 1500cc

ᴨ
Vs = 4 𝑑 2 𝐿

Calculate the air standard efficiency of diesel;

rc = V3/V2

Cut off volume = V3-V2 = 0.05Vs =

= 0,05x12.27Vc
By interpreting this equation with cut off ratio equation; calculate rc.

Then find the air standard efficiency.

Dual Cycle Problem 1:
An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 12. The pressure
and temperature at the beginning of compression are 1 bar and 27oC. The
maximum pressure reached is 42 bar and the maximum temperature is
1500oC. Determine (i) the temperature at the end of constant volume heat
addition (ii) cut-off ratio (iii) work done per kg of air and (iv) the cycle
efficiency.

Take Cp= 1.004 kJ/kg K and Cv=0.71kJ/kg K

Vs/Vc = r-1

= 12-1 = 11

Vs = 11Vc
 Calculate T2.

T2 = 753.6 K

P2
= 𝑟γ
P1

P2 .
= 121 4
P1

Consider process 3-4

T3 P3 45
= = =
T2 P2 P2

𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑇 3
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑐 = 𝑇4/𝑇3

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒/𝑘𝑔

Work done = Heat supplied-Heat rejected

Heat supplied = Cp(T3−T2)+Cv(T4−T3)

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 4 − 5

T4 =(V5) −
γ 1
= 45 =
γ 1
T5 (𝑉4) − P2

𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑇5

Heat rejected = Cv(T5−T1)

Work done = Heat supplied-Heat rejected

ηdual= Work output/Heat supplied

Dual Cycle Problem 2.
For an engine working on the dual cycle, the compression ratio is 10, and
the maximum pressure is limited to 60 bar. If the heat supplied is
1600kJ/kg, find the pressure and temperature at their salient points of the
cycle and the cycle efficiency. The pressure and temperature of air at the
beginning of compression are 1 bar and 100oC respectively. Take the
properties of air as; Take Cp= 1.004 kJ/kg K and Cv=0.71kJ/kg K
1. A six cylinder petrol engine has a compression ratio
of 5:1. The clearance volume of each cylinder is
110CC. It operates on the four stroke constant volume
cycle and the indicated efficiency ratio referred to air
standard efficiency is 0.56 at the speed of 2400 rpm. It
consumes 10kg of fuel per hour. The calorific value of
fuel is 44000 kJ/kg. Determine the average indicated
mean effective pressure.

2. The compression ratio of a dual cycle is 10. The

pressure and temperature at the beginning of the cycle
are 1 bar and 27⁰C. The maximum pressure of the cycle
is limited to 70 bar and heat supplied is limited to 1675
kJ/kg. Find the thermal efficiency.
r=5
Vc =110CC
ɳ relative = 0.56
N = 2400rpm
mf = 10kg = 10/3600 kg/s
Cv = 44000kJ/kg
K=6
Solution:
Compression ratio:
r = Vs + Vc/Vc → 5 = Vs + 110/110 → Vs = 440CC = 44x10−6m3
Air standard efficiency:
η=

Relative efficiency:
η relative = η actual/ η air- standard → 0.56 = η actual/air standard efficiency
η actual =
Actual efficiency = work output/ head input
Actual efficiency= W/ mf Cv → W =
W= .
The net work output:
W = Pm x Vs x N/60 x K →
Pm =
Given data:
r= 10
P1 = 1 bar
T1 = 27⁰C = 300K
P3 = 70 bar
Qs = 1675 KJ/kg
Solution:
Specific volumes:
V1 =RT1/P1 = 287 x 300/1 x 105
V2 = V1/r
= 0.861/10
1-2 isentropic compression process:
P1 = ( r ) 𝛄 x P1 = =
T2 = ( r ) 𝛄-1 x T1 = =
2-3 constant volume heat addition process:
T3 = (P3/P2) xT2 = =
Total heat supplied to the cycle:
Qs = Cv ( T3 – T2 ) + Cp (T4 – T3 )

T4 =

Cut off ratio:

ρ = V4/V3 = T4/T3 =

ρ=

Pressure ratio:
rp = P3/P2 =

Efficiency of the cycle:

Self study
 Study the following from IC Engines Book by V. Ganesan.

 Be familiar with all derivations related to air standard efficiency,

work output and mean effective pressure of Otto, Diesel, dual and
Brayton cycles.

 Comparison of the Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles.