C +-1)Explain WSN and Wireless Links in detail

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), is an infrastructure-less wireless

network that is deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-
hoc manner that is used to monitor the system, physical, or
environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that
manages and monitors the environment in a particular area. They are
connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing unit in the
WSN System. The base Station in a WSN System is connected through
the Internet to share data. WSN can be used for processing, analysis,
storage, and mining of the data
A wireless link is a communication channel that enables data transfer
between two or more devices without physical cables. These links use
electromagnetic waves such as radio frequency (RF), infrared (IR),
microwave, or optical signals to establish communication. Wireless
links are widely used in networking, telecommunications, the Internet of
Things (IoT), and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN).

2) Describe the Properties of Wireless Links

Properties of Wireless Links
Wireless links are characterized by their ability to transmit data through
the air without physical wires, offering properties like mobility,
broadcasting, susceptibility to interference, and the need for robust
security measures due to the open nature of the transmission medium;
key properties include:
Mobility:
Wireless links allow devices to move freely within a network coverage
area without the constraint of cables, enabling roaming functionality
where devices automatically switch to the strongest signal source.
Broadcasting:
Unlike wired connections, wireless signals are inherently broadcast,
meaning a single transmission can be received by multiple devices
within range. Interference:
The shared nature of the wireless medium makes it susceptible to
interference from other signals, potentially causing signal degradation or
data loss.
Signal Attenuation:
Wireless signals weaken as they travel through the air, leading to
limitations on transmission range and requiring careful consideration of
signal strength. Multipath Propagation:
Signals can reflect off objects, creating multiple paths to the receiver,
leading to potential signal distortion and fading.
Security Concerns:
Due to the openness of the wireless medium, data transmitted over
wireless links is more vulnerable to eavesdropping, requiring robust
encryption mechanisms like WPA2 or WPA3.
Limited Bandwidth:
Compared to some wired connections, wireless links can have lower
potential bandwidth depending on the technology and frequency band
used. Flexibility:
Wireless links offer greater flexibility in network deployment compared to
wired connections, enabling easier setup and adaptation to changing
environments.

3) Describe IoT and IoT Architecture in detail.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of interconnected smart
devices that collect, process, and exchange data over the internet
without human intervention. IoT enables real-time monitoring,
automation, and data-driven decision-making across various industries
such as healthcare, smart cities, industrial automation, and agriculture.
The IoT architecture consists of multiple layers that ensure seamless
data flow from devices to end-users. It typically follows a five-layer
model:
1. Perception Layer (Sensing Layer)
 Function: Collects data from the environment using sensors &
actuators.
  Components: Temperature sensors, RFID, cameras, motion
detectors.
2. Network Layer
 Function: Transfers data from sensors to cloud or local servers.
 Components: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa, 5G, NB-IoT,
Ethernet.
3. Edge Computing & Processing Layer
 Function: Performs local processing & filtering before sending
data to the cloud.
 Components: Edge devices (Raspberry Pi, IoT gateways), Fog
computing nodes.
4. Cloud & Application Processing Layer
 Function: Processes, stores, and analyzes large-scale IoT data.
 Components: Cloud platforms (AWS IoT, Azure IoT, Google
Cloud IoT), AI/ML tools.
5. Application Layer
 Function: Provides user interaction & control over IoT devices.
 Components: Mobile apps, dashboards, notifications, automation
systems.
4)Explain Range-Based Localization & Range-Free Localization.
1. Range-Based Localization
Definition:
Range-based localization techniques estimate the distance or angle
between nodes using mathematical calculations based on measured
physical parameters such as time, signal strength, or angle.
Key Techniques:
1. Time of Arrival (ToA)
o Measures the signal travel time from the transmitter to the
receiver.
o Requires synchronized clocks for accurate results.
o Example: GPS (Global Positioning System).
2. Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA)
o Measures the difference in arrival times of signals at
multiple receivers.
o Eliminates the need for precise clock synchronization.
o Example: UWB (Ultra-Wideband) localization.
3. Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI)
o Uses signal attenuation to estimate distance.
o Less accurate due to interference and environmental factors.
o Example: Wi-Fi and Bluetooth-based positioning.
4. Angle of Arrival (AoA)
o Measures the angle at which the signal arrives.
o Requires directional antennas or multiple antennas.
o Example: Beamforming in 5G networks.

Range-Free Localization
Definition:
 Range-free localization does not use distance or angle
measurements. Instead, it relies on connectivity, hop-count, or
area-based approaches to estimate a node’s position.
Key Techniques:
1. Centroid-Based Localization
o Uses reference nodes (anchors) and calculates an estimated
position based on their geometric center.
o Example: Indoor positioning systems using Wi-Fi
hotspots.
2. DV-Hop (Distance Vector-Hop)
o Counts the number of hops between a node and anchors to
estimate distance.
o Works well in large-scale WSNs without distance
measurements.
3. APIT (Approximate Point in Triangle Localization)
o Nodes determine their location by checking in which triangle
they lie, using anchor nodes.
4. Connectivity-Based Localization
o Nodes estimate their position based on the presence or
absence of neighbor connections.
o Example: Zigbee-based smart home networks.

5)Explain WSN and it's 4 Topologies in detail.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be organized into different
network topologies based on their application and network type. Here
are the most common types:
● Bus Topology: In a Bus Topology, multiple nodes are connected to a
single line or bus. Data travels along this bus from one node to the next.
It’s a simple layout often used in smaller networks.
● StarTopology: Star Topology have a central node, called the master
node, which connects directly to multiple other nodes. Data flows from
the master node to the connected nodes. This topology is efficient for
centralized control.
● Tree Topology: Tree Topology arrange nodes in a hierarchical
structure resembling a tree. Data is transmitted from one node to
another along the branches of the tree structure. It’s useful for expanding
coverage in hierarchical deployments.
● Mesh Topology: Mesh Topology feature nodes interconnected with
one another, forming a mesh-like structure. Data can travel through
multiple paths from one node to another until it reaches its destination.
This topology offers

6)Explain IEEE Standards and IEEE802.15.3, IEEE802.15.4 in detail

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) develops
globally recognized standards for networking, telecommunications, and
electronics. These standards ensure interoperability, efficiency, and
security in wireless communication.
Among these, the IEEE 802 family defines standards for Wireless
Networks, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Zigbee.

IEEE 802.15.1: Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical

Layer (PHY) specifications for Wireless Personal Area Networks
(WPAN)
IEEE 802.15.2: Coexistence of Wireless Personal Area Networks with
Other Wireless Devices Operating in Unlicensed Frequency Bands
IEEE 802.15.3: High Data Rate Wireless Multi-Media Networks
IEEE 802.15.4: Low-Rate Wireless Networks
IEEE 802.15.5: Mesh Topology Capability in Wireless Personal Area
Networks (WPANs) IEEE 802.15.6: Wireless Body Area Networks
IEEE 802.15.7: Visible Light Communication, Short-Range Optical
Wireless Communications
IEEE 802.15.8: Peer Aware Communications
IEEE 802.15.9: Key Management Protocol
IEEE 802.15.10: Layer 2 Routing, Practice for Routing Packets in IEEE
802.15.4 Dynamically Changing Wireless Networks
IEEE 802.15 Standard (Wireless Personal Area Networks - WPANs)
IEEE 802.15 focuses on Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs),
which cover short-range wireless communication.
It includes various sub-standards, such as:
 IEEE 802.15.1 → Bluetooth
 IEEE 802.15.3 → High data rate WPAN (UWB, multimedia
applications)
 IEEE 802.15.4 → Low-power, low-data-rate WPAN (Zigbee, IoT,
industrial applications)

3. IEEE 802.15.3 (High Data Rate WPANs)

Definition:
IEEE 802.15.3 defines high-speed, short-range communication for
applications like video streaming, gaming, and wireless multimedia
transfer. It is designed for high data rate (up to 55 Mbps) and low
power usage.
Key Features:
✔ Supports high-speed data transmission (11-55 Mbps).
✔ Uses Ultra-Wideband (UWB) & millimeter-wave technology for
short-range communication.
✔ Ad hoc networking without infrastructure.
✔ Low latency, ideal for real-time multimedia applications.
✔ Supports peer-to-peer (P2P) communication.

7)Explain any 5 security issues in Wireless Sensor Networks

Sensor networks have to fulfill some requirements for providing secure
communication. General security requirements of WSNs are availability,
confidentiality, integrity and authentication.
Some other requirements known as secondary requirements are source
localization, self organization and data freshness. These requirements
give protection against attacks to the information transmitted over the
sensor network.
Data Confidentiality: In sensor networks, data flows from many
intermediate nodes and chance of data leak is more. To provide data
confidentiality, encrypted data is used so that only the recipient decrypts
the data to its original form.
Data Integrity: Data received by the receiver should not be altered or
modified is Data Integrity. Original data is changed by intruders or due to
harsh environments. The intruder may change the data according to its
need and send this new data to the receiver.
Data Authentication: It is the procedure of confirmation that the
communicating node
is the one that it claims to be. It is important for receiver node to do
verification that the data is received from an authenticate node.
Data Availability: Data Availability means that the services are available
all the time even in case of some attacks such as Denial of service.
Source Localization: For data transmission some applications use
location information of the sink node. It is important to give security to
the location information. Non-secured data can be controlled by the
malicious node by sending false signal strengths or replaying signals.

8)Describe Localization Challenges and Properties.

Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) and IoT refers to
determining the position of a device or node within a network. It is
essential for tracking, navigation, and location-based services.
1. Localization Challenges
1️⃣ Accuracy & Precision
 Hard to achieve high accuracy due to signal interference.
 Example: GPS works well outdoors but poorly indoors.
2️⃣ Energy Consumption
 Localization drains battery life in sensor networks.
 Example: GPS is power-hungry, unsuitable for IoT.
3️⃣ Environmental Interference
 Obstacles cause signal attenuation & reflection.
 Example: Wi-Fi signals weaken indoors.
4️⃣ Scalability
 Difficult to track many devices in large networks.
 Example: Smart cities with thousands of IoT devices.
5️⃣ Security & Privacy
 Location data is prone to hacking & spoofing.
 Example: GPS spoofing can manipulate drones.
6️⃣ Cost & Infrastructure
 Some methods require expensive hardware.
 Example: High-accuracy RTLS needs dedicated setup.
7️⃣ Non-Line-of-Sight (NLoS) Issues
 Signals struggle in blocked environments.
 Example: GPS fails in tunnels.

2. Localization Properties
1️⃣ Accuracy & Precision
 Accuracy: Closeness to actual location.
 Precision: Consistency of measurements.
2️⃣ Scalability
 Must support many nodes efficiently (IoT, smart cities).
3️⃣ Robustness
 Handles noisy & missing data for reliable results.
4️⃣ Latency
 Low delay needed for real-time applications.
5️⃣ Energy Efficiency
  Low power methods preferred (Zigbee over GPS).
6️⃣ Cost-effectiveness
 Cheaper methods: Bluetooth, RFID vs. costly UWB, LiDAR.