Making Nouns Plural

In English, a noun is used to show a person, a place, or a thing. If we have one noun, we call it singular. For
example, dog, tree, and city are all singular nouns. If we want to show that we have more than one noun, we
need to make the noun plural. For most nouns, this means adding the letter "s" to the end of the word (dog,
trees). If a noun only needs "s", we call it a regular noun. For other nouns, called irregular nouns, we need to
change the word's ending to make it plural (city → cities). Read the following resource to review regular and
irregular singular and plural nouns.

Plural forms of nouns

Generally, making plurals (more than 1 of something) is very easy in English.

For almost all nouns we form the plural by adding s.

o I have an apple
o I have 5 apples.

For nouns that end with the letter y, we form the plural by removing the y and adding ies.

o I have a fly
o I have 5 flies.

For nouns that end with the letter s (dress), ch (beach), x (box), sh (bush) or z (quiz), we form the plural by
adding es.

o I have a bus.
o I have 5 buses.

There are also a small number of nouns that are very irregular. The first word in the following list is the
singular form and the second word is the plural form:

o child - children
o man - men
o woman - women
o foot - feet
o tooth - teeth
o goose - geese
o mouse - mice
o fish - fish
o sheep - sheep
o deer - deer

As you can see, with some words there is no change to form the plural. The plural form and the singular
form are exactly the same.

Sentence Agreement
Now that we're familiar with singular and plural nouns and verbs, we need to be sure we use nouns and verbs
together correctly. When writing a sentence, we want to take care to use the same plural or singular tense to
not confuse our readers. This is called "subject-verb agreement". Take the following two sentences, for
example; the first one uses correct subject-verb agreement, while the second sentence makes an error in
number agreement. Can you see the difference?

1. The pants are too small for my brother.

2. The pants is too small for my brother.

The noun "pants" is plural, so the verb needs to be plural, too. "Are" is plural, but "is" is singular, so "pants are"
is the correct use of the noun and verb together.

"The basic rule of sentence agreement is simple: A subject must agree with its verb in number. Number means
singular or plural" (Rozakis, 2003, p. 62). The subject may be either singular or plural, and the verb selection
should match the subject. The task sounds simple, but it's not always easy to make the subject and verb match
without some thought. Subject-verb agreement errors are common errors many beginning writers make, and
they are highly-stigmatized errors, which means people will judge you for them.

Here are some tips to help you avoid subject-verb agreement errors.

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use
a plural verb.

Suzy and her friend are missing the best movie ever!

2. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by or, use a
singular verb.

The pen or the pencil is in the drawer, my purse, my book bag, or perhaps,
my pencil pouch.

3. Do not be confused by a phrase that comes between your subject and your verb.

Russell Wilson, as well as the rest of the Seattle Seahawks, is ready for the
game against the Green Bay Packers.

4. Collective nouns can be tricky. Sometimes, they take a singular verb, and sometimes they take a plural
verb. It depends upon how they are being used. Collective nouns are nouns such as family, team, and
majority.

5. Fractions can be especially tricky, but the rule is that fractions should be treated as singular or plural,
depending upon the noun they are referring to.
 Two-thirds of the zombies in "The Walking Dead" move slowly. The rest
can apparently sprint.

Two-thirds of your cake was eaten before you got home.

English in Use – Verbs

In addition to using verbs for singular and plural nouns, verbs also tell the reader when something happens. In
English, a verb uses different tenses to tell the reader if it is an action happening in the past, present, or future.
Read this page to review verb tenses.

Verbs are the parts of speech that show action or indicate a state of being. We put them with nouns, and we
create complete sentences. Like nouns, verbs are foundational in our vocabulary, and we learned verbs as
children shortly after we learned nouns. There really is a lot to consider when it comes to verbs, such as making
our subjects and verbs agree, using active versus passive voice, and keeping our verbs in the same tenses.

Verbs can be in the present tense, present progressive tense, past tense, past progressive, present perfect, or
past perfect. It's important to understand tense because you want to be consistent with your verb tenses in
your writing. It's a common mistake to shift tenses without realizing it. This discussion of tenses can increase
your "tense awareness", which will lead to fewer errors.

Let's take the verb to eat as an example and see how it looks in the different tenses with the subject I.

Tense Example

present tense (present point in time) I eat dinner.

present progressive (present action of limited duration) I am eating dinner.

past tense (specific point in the past) I ate dinner yesterday.

past progressive (past action of limited duration) I was eating.

present perfect (completed action from a point in the past ending at

I have eaten dinner.
or near present)

past perfect (past action completed before another action also in the I had just eaten dinner when the
past) phone rang.

When it comes to verb tenses, it's important to be consistent and to be aware of any shifts. If you shift, there
needs to be a reason for the shift. Also, APA format will often require past tense in your essays, while MLA
format requires present tense, even if the words have been written in the past.

Verb Tense Shift

Just like with numbers, verbs need to agree in tense. If a sentence is talking about the past, all the verbs need to
remain in the past tense. Similarly, if the sentence is talking about the present, all the verbs needs to stay in the
present tense. When you have two sentences giving information about the same event, keep the verbs from both
sentences in the same tense to avoid confusing the reader.

You want to be sure that you are always consistent with your verb tense. When you shift verb tenses for no
reason, which is an easy mistake to make, you can really confuse your readers.

If you're writing in the present tense, be sure you stay in the present tense. If you're writing in the past tense,
be sure you stay in the past tense. The exception would be if you need to shift tenses to tell a story, but that
would be purposeful shifting. It's the random, accidental shifting that causes the problems, as illustrated in this
example:

She grabs my hand then flipped me like I weighed nothing. This

showed what a good self-defense course has done.

Here is what a corrected version of the sentence looks like:

She grabbed my hand then flipped me like I weighed nothing. This

showed what a good self-defense course has done.

You should also be aware that certain types of writing require either past or present tense. For example,
research in APA format often needs to be presented in the past tense, but a literary analysis written
in MLA format needs to be presented using present tense verbs. It's called the literary present tense. If you're
ever unsure about tense requirements, be sure to ask your teacher.

Unnecessary Tense Shift

Read this page for some examples of making sure your writing stays in the appropriate tense.

What is a tense shift?

"Tense" refers to the time when an action takes place: past, present, or future. Necessary tense shifts simply
make it clear to your reader when actions have taken, are taking, or will take place. When you "shift tense
unnecessarily", however, it means you change the times when actions are taking place within a chunk of text in
a way that doesn't seem to make sense. Notice how the tense changes cause confusion in these examples.

In February 2003, the Sefton City Council passed an ordinance

that limited the number of dogs city residents could keep on their property
to three. Several residents objected and formally petitioned the council to
 repeal the ordinance, but the council upheld it. Their reasoning IS that
having more than three dogs creates potentially dangerous situations. In
November 2004, however, changes in the Council's
membership resulted in the ordinance being repealed.

While St. Cloud struggles with keeping rental housing from

dominating the housing market, other communities in central
Minnesota undertook several initiatives to build more apartments and
condominiums.

The best way to find unnecessary tense shifts is to read a piece of writing through one time just looking for
tense and asking yourself whether each verb tense accurately reflects the time period it took place, takes place,
or will take place in. Start by using a highlighter to mark each verb, and then ask yourself if the "time" is correct
for each one.

The correction:

In February 2003, the Sefton City Council passed an ordinance

that limited the number of dogs city residents could keep on their property
to three. Several residents objected and formally petitioned the council to
repeal the ordinance, but the council upheld it. Their reasoning WAS that
having more than three dogs creates potentially dangerous situations. In
November 2004, however, changes in the Council's
membership resulted in the ordinance being repealed.

(No reason exists to believe that those who then thought that three or more dogs in a household created a
dangerous situation have changed their minds or that dogs' behavior in a group of three or more has changed.
The composition of the council had changed, and the composition of the city council having changed, the city
council voted differently).

While St. Cloud STRUGGLED with keeping rental housing from

dominating the housing market, other communities in central
Minnesota undertook several initiatives to build more apartments and
condominiums.

if referring to a situation in the past – or –

 While St. Cloud STRUGGLES with keeping rental housing from
dominating the housing market, other communities in central
Minnesota UNDERTAKE several initiatives to build more apartments and
condominiums.

if referring to a current situation.

Vocabulary Choice
In English, different words may mean the same or very similar things. These words allow us to use better
descriptions when we talk or write. Recognizing synonyms helps you build your vocabulary to better
understand what you read and be expressive when you write. Read this page on synonyms.

A synonym is a word or a phrase that means the same thing as another word or phrase.

Examples:

 car and automobile

 baby and infant
 child and kid
 student and pupil
 sick and ill
 scared and frightened

Synonyms can be nouns, verbs, adverbs or adjectives, but both words must be of the same part of speech. That
means that only a noun can be a synonym of another noun, only a verb can be a synonym of another verb, and
so on.

One can find sets of synonyms in a thesaurus, which is a book listing groups of related words. If it feels like
you keep repeating a word throughout your writing, pull out a thesaurus for ideas on different, more creative
choices. A thesaurus can add some color and depth to a piece that may otherwise seem repetitive and
mundane. However, make sure that the word you substitute has the meaning you intend to convey.
Thesauruses provide words with similar meanings, not identical meanings. If you are unsure about the precise
meaning of a replacement word, look up the new word in a dictionary.

Antonyms
English speakers and writers use antonyms to show opposites. Knowing when a word is being used as an
antonym can help you understand the meaning of another word or sentence.

What is an antonym?
An antonym is a word that is the opposite of another word.

Antonyms can help a writer use more description. Recognizing an antonym can help a reader understand what
he or she is reading.
When do I use an antonym?

Different kinds of antonyms can be used to show different contexts, for example:

 Antonyms can show time:

o Early - Late
o Past - Future
o Then - Now

 Antonyms can describe:

o Good - Bad
o Hard - Easy
o Bright - Dreary
o Light - Dark

 Antonyms can explain size:

o Big - Little
o Large - Small

 Antonyms can show location:

o Interior - Exterior
o Up - Down
o Above - Under

The study of antonyms will not only help you choose the most appropriate word as you write; it will also
sharpen your overall sense of language. This table lists common words and their antonyms.

Word Antonym Word Antonym

absence presence frequent seldom

accept refuse harmful harmless

accurate inaccurate horizontal vertical

advantage disadvantage imitation genuine

ancient modern inhabited uninhabited

abundant scarce inferior superior

artificial natural intentional accidental

attractive repulsive justice injustice

borrow lend knowledge ignorance

bravery cowardice landlord tenant

 Word Antonym Word Antonym

create destroy, demolish likely unlikely

bold timid, meek minority majority

capable incapable miser spendthrift

combine separate obedient disobedient

conceal reveal optimist pessimist

common rare permanent temporary

decrease increase plentiful scarce

definite indefinite private public

despair hope prudent imprudent

discourage encourage qualified unqualified

employer employee satisfactory unsatisfactory

expand contract tame wild

forget remember vacant occupied

Context Clues
When you read, you use clues to help you figure out what is happening. Synonyms and antonyms are useful as
context clues. Recognizing synonyms tells you when something is similar, and recognizing antonyms tells you
when something is in contrast. When you don't know a word, use any synonyms or antonyms around it to help
you learn its meaning. Read this page on context clues to see how you can use synonyms and antonyms to
understand what you read.

No matter what course or program you are taking, you will have new vocabulary and terminology to learn.
While many people turn quickly to their dictionaries for the meanings of new words, this is not always a
necessary strategy. Instead, it can be more meaningful to try to reason out the meaning of the word, based on
what we already know about it.

When authors write, they often give context clues to readers to suggest the meanings of new or difficult
words. Context clues usually give you a sense of a word's meaning, so you can continue reading without
referring to a dictionary. There are five main types of context clues that may be embedded in sentences.

1. Definitions or Restatements
o The author directly defines the new word within the sentence. This strategy is commonly used in
textbook material.
 o For example: "When people contravene – break or violate – a law in Canada, they can expect to
face legal consequences."
o Explanation: "Break or violate" is the definition of the word "contravene".
2. Synonyms
o The author uses a word or phrase with a similar meaning to suggest the meaning of the new
word.
o For example: "Following his death by accidental drug overdose, actor Heath Ledger
posthumously received an Oscar for best supporting actor for his portrayal of The Joker in The
Dark Knight."
o Explanation: "Following his death" has a similar meaning to the word "posthumously."
3. Antonyms
o The author uses a word or phrase with an opposite meaning to suggest the meaning of the new
word.
o For example: "I really don't appreciate your duplicity. I expect you to give me an honest
response from now on."
o Explanation: "Honest response" has the opposite meaning of "duplicity" since the speaker
expects a different behaviour from the other person from that point on.
4. Examples
o The author provides examples or illustrations of the new word to suggest its meaning.
o For example: "Bats, owls, raccoons, and crickets are chiefly nocturnal creatures."
o Explanation: "Bats, owls, raccoons, and crickets" are examples of "nocturnal creatures" (creatures
of the night).
5. General Inference
o The author provides enough information in a sentence that the word's meaning can be inferred.
o For example: "It would be an egregious mistake to wear a dirty t-shirt and shabby blue jeans to
a funeral."
o Explanation: Although "egregious" is not specifically defined, most people would infer that it is
inappropriate or offensive to wear worn out clothing at a funeral.

Making Inferences
The English idiom "read between the lines" is often used when talking about making inferences. When we
make an inference, we take the information we already know and apply it to what we read, see, or hear.
Combining what you already know with what you want to know helps you better understand what you read.
Read this page for strategies on "reading between the lines" to make inferences.

Making inferences is a comprehension strategy used by proficient readers to "read between the lines", make
connections, and draw conclusions about the text's meaning and purpose.

You already make inferences all of the time. For example, imagine you go over to a friend's house and they
point at the sofa and say, "Don't sit there, Cindy came over with her baby again". What could you logically
conclude?

First, you know there must be a reason not to sit where your friend is pointing. Next, the reason not to sit there
is related to the fact that Cindy just visited with her baby. You don't know what exactly happened, but you can
make an inference and don't need to ask any more questions to know that you do not want to sit there.
Making Inferences as You Read

To make inferences from reading, take two or more details from the reading and see if you can draw a
conclusion. Remember, making an inference is not just making a wild guess. You need to make a judgment
that can be supported, just as you could reasonably infer there is a baby in a stroller, but not reasonably infer
that there are groceries, even though both would technically be a "guess".

When you are asked an inference question, go back over the reading and look for hints within the text, such as
words that are directly related to the question you may be asked (such as for a multiple choice test) or words
that indicate opinion.

Types of Inference

Putting Ideas Together

When you make inferences, you think about what the writer says about a topic, what you already know about
it, and what ideas we can add. This strategy is called "It Says, I Say, And So".

It Says – What an article says

I say – What you think or already know about the reading's topic.

And So – Your ideas from combining the reading and your own knowledge

Thinking about what you already know and adding it to what you read helps you to better comprehend, or
understand, the points the writer makes. Taking notes as you read is a strategy to help do this. Review this
page for information on how to combine your ideas with a reading and take notes to keep everything
organized.

When we read something for the first time, we often have background knowledge, things we already know
about the topic. Even if it's only a small amount of knowledge, it's something we bring with us as we read. This
is called prior knowledge.

Combining your prior knowledge with the author's ideas can help you understand the topic and ideas in a
reading. One way to do this is with the strategy "It Says, I Say, And So". We'll go through this strategy step by
step.

Step 1: Read this paragraph on computers

Computers
 Early computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient
times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations.
Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to
automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More
sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early
20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed
during World War II. The first semiconductortransistors in the late 1940s were
followed by the silicon-based MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic
integrated circuit (IC) chip technologies in the late 1950s, leading to the
microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the 1970s. The speed,
power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since
then, with MOS transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace (as predicted by
Moore's law), leading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st
centuries.

Step 2: What three important things does the reading say about computers? Write them down.

Step 3: What three things did you already know about computers? Was anything you already knew mentioned
in this reading? Write that down.

Step 4: Put your ideas together. If you combine what the author said in this reading with what you already
know, what can you now say about computers? Write that down.
Use Context Clues to Define Words
Context clues tell you what a word means. Inferences tell you what is happening in what you're reading. When
you put them together, you can better comprehend the things you read. This video explains what context clues
are and how to use them to decipher the meaning of unfamiliar words you come across while reading.

Putting Clues Together

As you've seen, using context clues can show you what a word means without looking it up in a dictionary.
When you think about the meaning of a sentence, you can figure out new words. Similarly, when you make an
inference about something in an article, you can deduce, or figure out, what the writer is telling you.

To take this one step further, when you can better understand an article, you can explain your own conclusions,
or judgments, about the ideas in the article.

This article includes words you may not know and ideas you can make inferences about to expand upon. Read
the article and answer the questions that follow.
 Memory Magic
Dave Farrow is a Canadian who appears in the Guinness Book of World Records for having the greatest
memory. As a student, Dave had a learning disability called dyslexia. Despite his struggles with subjects
like reading and writing, Dave found ways to improve his memory in order to do well in school. In 2008, he
set a world record by memorizing the order of 59 decks of playing cards in two days. How did his brain
store all of this information? According to Dave, anybody's brain can do it, but it helps to understand how
memory works.
Your brain is constantly taking in information through your senses. The information enters your sensory
memory, which has the capacity to hold lots of information, but only for a few seconds. If you ignore the
information, your brain will discard it. However, if you pay attention to it, the information goes into your
short-term memory. This is why learning to pay attention is an important first step to improving your
ability to recall what you learn.
To help the brain focus, Dave recommends breaking big tasks down into smaller ones. He sets a timer and
works as hard as he can for short periods of time until the timer alarm sounds. Then he takes a small
break. This keeps his focus strong.
Your short-term memory can only hold information from 15 seconds to a few minutes. In addition, short-
term memory can only hold about seven things at one time. Memory champions like Dave have to hold
long lists of information in their short-term memory at one time. To do this, they rely on different tricks.
One trick is to look at the first letter of every word you want to memorize. Then, create your own word,
phrase or sentence using all of those letters. This is called an acronym. For example, if you want to
remember all the colours in a rainbow, try remembering the name Roy G. Biv. Each letter in this fictional
name matches the first letter of a colour: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. When you
want to remember the colours of a rainbow, just think of Roy G. Biv and you will have an easier time.
Another trick is to organize information into chunks. For example, when you try to remember a telephone
number, your brain usually remembers it in chunks. You remember the area code as one chunk, the next
three numbers as a chunk, and the last four numbers as a chunk. This way, your brain only has to
remember three things instead of ten. This works for words as well as numbers. Imagine that you wish to
improve your vocabulary. Whenever you learn a new word, study words that share the same meaning.
This way, you learn several new words at the same time and you only need to memorize one definition.
Such words are called synonyms. For example, synonyms for the word big are huge, enormous, gigantic,
large and massive.
A third memory trick is to use visualization. Say you wanted to memorize how people developed from
wormlike creatures into human beings. First, create a picture in your mind for each stage (picture a worm,
a fish, a monkey and a human). Then think of a path you regularly walk along. For example, you might
normally walk from the path outside your home, into your house and into the kitchen. Finally, imagine
each picture in a place along that path. For instance, in the garden you might see a worm. There might be
a garbage can in the garden. You can imagine that the garbage can is full of rainwater and inside you can
see a fish. When you enter the house you might see a bedroom door. You can imagine a monkey is
jumping on the bed. Then you might see a member of your family, a human, cooking dinner. Visualize that
path a few times and you'll have the information memorized. Visualization works because the brain
remembers images well, and the wackier an image is, the easier it is to remember.
If you don't keep using the information, your brain throws it away. If you keep reviewing the information,
it will go into your long-term memory. The more you practice recalling the information, the better you will
be at remembering it. Try these tips the next time you need to remember a phone number, a new word or
something for school.
Annotating
When you're able to draw your own conclusions about an article, you can use your writing to explain those
conclusions to others. When writing about your inferences, first organize your ideas to present them clearly.
Watch this video to learn how you can radically improve your understanding of what you read if you write
while you read.

Annotation, which means "to add notes", is one of the key skills of active reading. By reading with a pen, pencil,
or highlighter in hand, the reader can pause to mark important information, reflect on ideas, and monitor his or
her understanding. Annotating while you read is the most fundamental technique of active reading. Learn how
to annotate a text by watching this video.

Explain Your Ideas

You now have strategies to comprehend what you read, apply your prior knowledge, combine your ideas with
those of an author, and organize everything to draw conclusions about a reading. Now you can bring all of
those skills together to explain your ideas in writing. This page walks you through a writing assignment.

Sometimes, it's difficult to decide how much to explain or how much detail to go into in a paper. Remember
that you need to explain the major concepts in your paper and provide clear, accurate information. Your reader
should be able to make the necessary connections from one thought or sentence to the next. When you don't,
the reader can become confused or frustrated. Make sure you connect the dots and explain how information
you present is relevant and how it connects with other ideas.

Time to Write

The purpose of most college essay writing assignments is not for you to find and directly report the
information you find. Instead, it's to think about the information you find, come up with your own idea or
assertion about your topic, and then provide support that shows why you think that way.

Exercise 1

Read this passage and then respond to the questions. Each question will ask you to make a logical inference
based on textual details.

Kadijah looked in the mirror at the bright red pustule on her nose. She poked at it carefully, afraid that it might burst
on her dress. It was large and painful. The more she prodded it, the larger it got. This is not how it was supposed to
go! Kadijah thought to herself. Then she began crying. Her mother yelled up the stairs, "Kadijah! Abdul is here!" This
news made Kadijah even more distraught. Now her makeup was running and just as she feared, some of it got on her
dress. "Why me? Why today?" Kadijah lamented to herself between sobs and gasps.