Additional Topic that are not included in the compiled reviewer.

• Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit: Fahrenheit – Celsius = (F-32)/1.8

Celsius – Fahrenheit = (C*1.8)+32
• 1 Radian = 180 /3.14 (pi) = 57.3 °, therefore 1 Radian = 57.3°

Simple and Compound Interest

Practice Questions:
Q.1 James wants to buy a bike and wants a loan of $1,000. The bank gives him the loan at a rate of 5% per
annum. If James returns the amount after two years, how much extra money does he return to the bank?
a) $10,000
b) $100
c) $10
d) $1,000
Q.2 The interest paid on a certain sum of money is $2,140 in 2.5 years at a rate of 16% per annum. What is the
sum returned after 2.5 years?
a) $5,350
b) $5,673
c) $3,000
d) $4,340
Q.3 If the interest paid by Micheal is one-fifth of the total amount he has to pay after a certain time period, what
is the time period if the rate of interest was 25%?
a) 3 years 6 months
b) 4 years 6 months
c) 3 years
d) 4 years
Q.4 The interest on a sum lent at the rate of 10% per annum for a period of 20 months is equal to 1.5 times
interest on $3,000 at the rate of 5% per annum in 3 years. What is the sum.
a) $4,500
b) $4,000
c) $4,050
d) $3,670
Q.5 William has three sons - John, Jacob and Joseph. He has to distribute his savings of $100,000 such that
when the sons invest their money at 11% per year, they get equal interest after 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years
respectively. What was the share received by Joseph?
a) $18,181.8
b) $54,545.4
c) $36, 363.6
d) $34,343.4
Interest Rate Formula
Interest Rate Formula
The interest rate formula in terms of simple interest is written as:
Interest Rate = (Simple Interest × 100)/(Principal × Time)
The interest rate formula in terms of compound interest is written as:
Compound Interest Rate = P (1+i) t – P
Where,
P = principal amount
i = r = rate of interest
t = time period

Example 1: If Sam lends $5000 to his friend and received $6000 after a year. Using the interest rate formula,
find at what interest rate did Sam lends the amount to his friend?
Solution:
Principal amount = $5000(given)
Simple intrest =$6000- $5000= $1000
Time=1 year
Using interest rate formula,
Interest Rate = (Simple Interest × 100)/(Principal × Time)
Interest Rate = (1000 × 100)/(5000 × 1)
Interest Rate = 20%
Therefore, Sam will take a 20% interest rate from his friend in a year.

Example 2: James borrowed $600 from the bank at some rate per annum and that amount becomes double in 2
years. Calculate the rate at which James borrowed the money.
Solution:
Principal amount = $600(given)
Simple interest =$1200- $600= $600
 Time = 2 year
Using interest rate formula,
Interest Rate = (Simple Interest × 100)/(Principal × Time)
Interest Rate = (600 × 100)/(600 × 2)
Interest Rate = 50%
Therefore, James borrowed the money at 50% rate.

Example 3: What is the interest rate on principal amount 12000 in 2 years, if the simple interest is 1200?
Solution:
Using simple interest rate formula,

The interest rate of a given amount can be expressed as,

Interest Rate = (Simple Interest × 100)/(Principal × Time)
Interest Rate = (1200 × 100)/(12000 × 100)
Interest Rate = 5%
Therefore, the interest rate is 5%

Total Interest Formula

Using the total interest formula, one can calculate the percentage of the principal amount, charged by the
lender or bank to the borrower for the use of its assets or money for a specific time period. In this section, we
will be discussing the various aspects of the total interest formula, and understand the variables involved.
What Is the Total Interest Formula?
The total interest formula is a formula to find the total simple interest on a principal amount at a
particular rate of interest over a period of time. The Total Interest Formula of a given value can be expressed as,
I = P×R×T
Where,
• I = Total Interest
• P = Principal amount
• R = Rate of interest on the principal amount
• T = Time period

Example 1: Find the simple interest on $36,000 at a 12% per annum rate of interest for a period of 4 years.
Solution:
To find: Total interest
Given,
Principal amount = 36,000
Rate of interest = 0.12
Time = 4 years.
Using the total interest formula,
I=P×R×T
I = 36000×0.12×4
= $17,280 .
Answer: The simple interest $17,280.

Example 2: Find the principal amount for which total interest for 3 years comes out to be $20,000 at 10% rate
of interest.
Solution:
To find: The principal amount.
Given,
Total interest = $20,000
Rate of interest = 0.10
Time = 3 years
Using the total interest formula,
I=P×R×T
20000 = P×0.10×3
P = 20000 / (0.10×3)
p = 66,666.67
Answer: The principal amount is $66,666.67.

Future Value Simple Interest Formula

Before we learn the future value simple interest formula, let's understand what it means. The final
amount of money lent or the total amount at the end of the period is known as future value at the end of that
period. The future value simple interest formula gives us the future value that simple interest will produce after
the end of the period. Let us learn more about the future value simple interest formula along with the solved
examples.
What Is the Future Value Simple Interest Formula?
The future value simple interest formula is the addition of the principal amount that we have in the
beginning and the interest earned on that principal amount after the completion of the period. The Future Value
Simple Interest Formula is given as,
F V = P + I or F V = P(1 + rt)
Here,
P is the principal amount,
I is the interest,
r is the rate, and
t is the time.
Example1: If Sam lends $1,500 to his friend at an interest rate of 4.3%. Find the future value after 6 years by
using future value simple interest formula?

Solution: To find: The future value after 6 years.

P = 1500, r = 0.043 (4.3%), and t = 6 (given)
Using Future Value Simple Interest Formula,
F V = P + I or F V = P(1 + rt)
Put the values,
F V = 1500 + I or F V = 1500(1 + 0.043 × 6)
F V = 1500(1 + 0.258)
F V = 1500(1.258)
F V = 1500(1.258)
F V = 1887
Answer: The future value after 6 years will be $1887.

Example 2: James borrowed $600 from the bank at some rate and that future value becomes quadruple in 4
years. Calculate the rate at which James borrowed the money by using future value simple interest formula.

Solution: To find: Interest rate

P = 600, FV = 2400, and t = 4(given)
Using formula,
F V = P + I or F V = P(1 + rt)
2400 = 600 + I or F V = 600(1 + r × 4)
2400 = 600 + 2400r
1800 = 2400r
r = 1800/2400
r = 0.75%
Answer: The Interest rate on the given amount of money is 75%.
 Daily Compound Interest Formula
In compound interest, the interest for every period is calculated on the amount for the previous period.
This means the amount for the previous time period becomes the principal for the current time period.
"Compounding" means adding interest to the current principal amount.
What is Daily Compound Interest Formula?
The daily compound interest formula is where the interest is calculated 365 times in a year, hence the
value of n is 365. By the given explanation, the daily compound interest formula is:
A = P (1 + r / n)n t
Here,
P = the principal amount
r = rate of interest
t = time in years
n = number of times the amount is compounding.
When the amount compounds daily, it means that the amount compounds 365 times in a year. i.e., n =
365.

Example 1: You have invested $1000 in a bank where your amount gets compounded daily at an interest rate of
5%. Then what is the amount you get after 10 years? Calculate this by using the daily compound interest
formula.
Solution:
To find: The amount after 10 years.
The principal amount is, P = $1000.
The rate of interest is, r = 5% =5/100 = 0.05.
The time in years is, t = 10.
Using the daily compound interest formula is:
A = P (1 + r / 365)365 t
A = 1000 ( 1+ 0.05/365)365×10
A =$1648.66
Answer: The amount after 10 years = $1648.66.

Example 2: How long does it take for $15000 to double if the amount is compounded daily at 10% annual
interest? Calculate this by using the daily compound interest formula and round your answer to the nearest
integer.
Solution:
To find: The time taken for $15000 to double.
The principal amount, P = $15000.
The rate of interest is, r = 10% =10/100 = 0.1.
The final amount is, A = 15000 x 2 = $30000
Let us assume that the required time in years is t.
 Using the daily compound interest formula is:
A = P (1 + r / 365)365 t
30000 = 15000 (1 + 0.1 / 365)365 t
Dividing both sides by 15000,
2 =(1.0002739)365 t
Taking ln on both sides
ln 2 = 365 × t × ln 1.0002739
t = ln 2/(365 ln 1.0002739)
t= 7
Answer: It takes 7 years for $15000 to become double.

Compound Interest
Compound interest is an interest accumulated on the principal and interest together over a given time
period. The interest accumulated on a principal over a period of time is also accounted under the principal.
Further, the interest calculation for the next time period is on the accumulated principal value. Compound
interest is the new method of calculation of interest used for all financial and business transactions across the
world. The power of compounding can easily be understood, when we observe the compound interest values
accumulated across successive time periods.

A sum of money of $100 invested over a period of time for a 10% rate would give a simple interest of
$10, $10, $10... over successive time periods of 1 year, but would give a compound interest of $10, $11, $12.1,
$13.31... Let us understand more about this, and the calculations of compound interest in the below content.

What is meant by Compound Interest?

Compound interest is the interest paid on both principal and interest, compounded at regular intervals.
At regular intervals, the interest so far accumulated is clubbed with the existing principal amount and then the
interest is calculated for the new principal. The new principal is equal to the sum of the Initial principal, and the
interest accumulated so far.
Compound Interest = Interest on Principal + Compounded Interest at Regular Intervals
The compound interest is calculated at regular intervals like annually(yearly), semi-annually, quarterly,
monthly, etc; It is like, re-investing the interest income from an investment makes the money grow faster over
time! It is exactly what the compound interest does to the money. Banks or any financial organization calculate
the amount based on compound interest only.

Compound Interest Formula

The compound interest is calculated, after calculating the total amount over a period of time, based on
the rate of interest, and the initial principal. For an initial principal of P, rate of interest per annum of r, time
period t in years, frequency of the number of times the interest is compounded annually n, the formula for
calculation of amount is as follows.
Compound Amount Formula
The above formula represents the total amount at the end of the time period and includes the
compounded interest and the principal. Further, we can calculate the compound interest by subtracting the
principal from this amount. The formula for calculating the compound interest is as follows

Compound Interest Formula

In the above expression,
P is the principal amount
r is the rate of interest(decimal)
n is frequency or no. of times the interest is compounded annually
t is the overall tenure.
It is to be noted that the above-given formula is the general formula when the principal is compounded n
number of times in a year. If the given principal is compounded annually, the amount after the time period at
percent rate of interest, r, is given as:
A = P(1 + r/100)t, and C.I. would be: P(1 + r/100)t - P .

Derivation of Compound Interest Formula

The formula for compound interest can be derived from the formula for simple interest. The formula for
simple interest is the product of the principal, time period, and rate of interest (SI = ptr/100). Before looking
into to derivation of the formula for compound interest, let us understand the basic difference between simple
interest, compound interest computation. The principal remains constant over a period of time, for simple
internet computation, but for compound interest computation the interest is added to the principal, for
compound interest computation.
Derivation:
The derivation of the compound interest formula is given in the following steps:
• Let the principal be P and the rate of interest be R% per annum. Since the interest is compounded
annually, so the compounding period is 1 year. It is to be noted that the principal (P) will change after
every 1 year. So, let us calculate the interest for the first year. The interest for the first year will be as
follows:
• Let the interest for the first year be I1
• I1 = R% of P = R/100 × P
• Now, the amount at the end of the first year will be:
• A1 = P + I1 = P + (R/100 × P). This will give A1 = P (1 + R/100)
• Now, let us calculate the interest for the second year. It is to be noted that the amount of the first year
will become the Principal of the second year. Let this Principal be P2
• Now, P2 = A1 = P (1 + R/100)
• Now, let us take the interest for the second year to be I2 = R% of P2, which is R/100 × P2 = R/100 × P(1
+ R/100)
• Now, the amount at the end of the second year will be A2 = P2 + I2 which is P (1 + R/100) + R/100 ×
P(1 + R/100)
 • This expression can be written as A2 = P (1 + R/100) (1 + R/100) = P (1 + R/100)2
• Continuing in this manner for n compounding periods, the amount at the end of the nth compounding
period can be expressed as A = P(1 + R/100)n.
• From the above formulas and computations, you can observe that the compound interest is the same as
simple interest for the first interval. But, over a period of time, there is a remarkable difference in
returns.
The simple interest value for each of the years is the same, as the principal on which it is calculated is
constant. But the compound interest is varying and increasing across the years. Because the principal on which
the compound interest is calculated is increasing. The principal for a particular year is equal to the sum of the
initial principal value, and the accumulated interest of the past years.

For example, a sum of $10,000 is deposited at a rate of 10%. The below table explains the difference
between simple interest and compound interest computation on this principal:

Simple Interest Calculation (r = 10%) Compound Interest Calculation(r = 10%)

For 1st year: For 1st year:

P = 10,000 P = 10,000
Time = 1 year Time = 1 year
Interest = 1000 Interest = 1000

For 2nd year: For 2nd year:

P = 10,000 P = 11000
Time = 1 year Time = 1 year
Interest = 1000 Interest = 1100

For 3rd year: For 3rd year:

P = 10,000 P = 12100
Time = 1 year Time = 1 year
Interest = 1000 Interest = 1210

For 4th year: For 4th year:

P = 10,000 P = 13310
Time = 1 year Time = 1 year
Interest = 1000 Interest = 1331

For 5th year: For 5th year:

P = 10,000 P = 14641
Time = 1 year Time = 1 year
Interest = 1000 Interest = 1464.1
Total Simple Interest = 5000 Total Compount Interest = 6105.1

Total Amount = 1000 + 5000 = 6000 Total Amount = 1000 + 6105.1 = 7105.1

Compound Interest Formula for Different Time Periods

Compound interest for a given principal can be calculated for different time periods using different
formulas.
Compound Interest Formula - Half Yearly
The interest in the case of compound interest varies based on the period of computation. If the time
period for the calculation of interest is half-yearly, the interest is calculated every six months, and the amount is
compounded twice a year.
The formula to calculate the compound interest when the principal is compounded semi-annually or
half-yearly is given as:

Here the compound interest is calculated for the half-yearly period, and hence the rate of interest r, is
divided by 2 and the time period is doubled. The formula to calculate the amount when the principal is
compounded semi-annually or half-yearly is given by:

Compound Interest Formula - Quarterly

If the time period for the calculation of interest is quarterly, the interest is calculated for every three months, and
the amount is compounded 4 times a year. The formula to calculate the compound interest when the principal is
compounded quarterly is given as:
Here the compound interest is calculated for the quarterly time period, and hence the rate of interest r, is divided
by 4 and the time period is quadrupled. The formula to calculate the amount when the principal is compounded
quarterly is given by:

In the above expression,

• A is the amount at the end of the time period
• P is the initial principal value, r is the rate of interest per annum
• t is the time period
• C.I. is the compound interest.
Monthly Compound Interest Formula
The monthly compound interest formula is also known as the interest calculated per month i.e., n = 12.
Total compound interest is the final amount excluding the principal amount. The monthly compound interest
formula is expressed as:
CI = P (1 + r/12)12t - P
Daily Compound Interest Formula
When the amount compounds daily, it means that the amount compounds 365 times in a year. i.e., n =
365. The daily compound interest formula is expressed as:
CI = P (1 + r/365)365t - P
Important Notes
• Compound interest depends on the amount accumulated at the end of the previous tenure but not on
the original principal.
• Banks, insurance companies, etc. generally levy compound interest.
• If the interest is compounded quarterly, the formula of amount is given by:
A=P(1+r/4100)4nA=P(1+r/4100)4n
• While calculating the compound interest, the rate of interest, and each time period must be of the
same duration.
Example 1: Noah lends $4000 to Emma at an interest rate of 10% per annum, compounded half-yearly for a
period of 2 years. Can you help him find out how much amount he gets after a period of 2 years from Emma?
Solution:
Let us identify the data given to us: The principal amount 'P' is $4000. The rate of interest, r' is 10% per
annum. Conversion period = Half-year, Rate of interest per half-year = 10/2 % = 5%. The time period 't' is 2
years.

Time
Amount Calculation
Period

Principal = $4000
Interest = 5% × $4000 = (5/100) × 4000 =
1st half year
$200
Amount = $4000 + $200 = $4200

Principal = $4200
2nd half Interest = 5% × $4200 = 5/100 × 4200 =
year $210
Amount = $4200 + $210 = $4410

Principal = $4410
rd
3 half
Interest = 5% × $4410 = $220.5
year
Amount = $4410 + $220.5 = $4630.5

Principal = $4630.5
th
4 half
Interest = 5% × $4630.5 = $231.53
year
Amount = $4630.5 + $231.53 = $4862.03

The total interest to be paid over 2 years 200 + $210 + $220.5 + $231.53 = $862.03. Total Amount = P
+ I=$4000 + $862.03 = $4862.03. Therefore the total amount is $4862.03.

Example 2: Solve the above-given problem using the compound interest formula.
Solution:
The principal amount 'P' is $4000. The rate of interest 'r' is 10% per annum. Conversion period = Half-
year, Rate of interest per half-year = 10/2% = 5%. The time period 't' is 2 years. The compounding frequency
'n' is 2.
Let us substitute the given data in the compound interest formula: A = P(1+{r / 2}/100)2n= 4000(1+{10 /
2}/100)2(2)= $4862.03
Therefore the final amount is $4862.03, and the compound interest formula makes the solution simple.
 Monthly Compound Interest Formula

The monthly compound interest formula is used to find the compound interest per month. Compound
interest is widely known as interest on interest. Compound interest for the first period is similar to the simple
interest but the difference occurs in and from the second period of time. From the second period, the interest is
also calculated on the interest thus earned on the previous period of time, that is why it is known as interest on
interest. Let us learn more about the monthly compound interest formula along with solved examples.
What Is the Monthly Compound Interest Formula?

The monthly compound interest formula is also known as the formula of interest on interest calculated
per month, the interest is added back to the principal each month. Total compound interest is the final amount
excluding the principal amount.

Monthly Compound Interest Formula

The formula for the compound interest is derived from the difference between the final amount and the
principal, which is: CI = Amount - Principal. The formula of monthly compound interest is:
CI = P(1 + (r/12) )12t - P
Where,
 •P is the principal amount,
•r is the interest rate in decimal form,
•t is the time.
Derivation of Monthly Compound Interest Formula

The formula for calculating the compound interest is as,

CI = P (1 + r/100)n
• P is the principal amount
• r is the rate of interest
• n is frequency or no. of times the interest is compounded annually
• t is the overall tenure.
If the time period for the calculation of interest is monthly, the interest is calculated for each month, and the
amount is compounded 12 times a year as there are 12 months in a year. The formula to calculate the compound
interest when the principal is compounded monthly is given as:
CI = P(1 + (r/12) )12t - P
Here the compound interest is calculated for a month (time period). Thus, the rate of interest r, is divided by
12 and the time period is 12 times.

Example1: If Sam lends $1,500 to his friend at an annual interest rate of 4.3%, compounded per month.
Calculate the interest after the end of the year by using the compound interest formula.
Solution:
To find: Compound interest accumulated after 1 year.
P = 1500, r = 0.043 (4.3%), n = 12 , and t = 1 (given)
Using monthly compound interest formula,
CI = P(1 + (r/n) )nt - P
Put the values,
CI = 1500(1 + (0.043/12))12 - 1500
CI = 65.786
Answer: The compound interest after 1 year will be $65.786.

Example 2: James borrowed $600 from the bank at some rate compounded per month and that amount
becomes quadruple in 2 years. Calculate the rate at which James borrowed the money by using the monthly
compound interest formula.
Solution:
To find: Interest rate
P = 600, n = 12, and t = 2, Amount = 2400 (given)
Using formula,
CI = Amount - Principal
Put the values,
CI = 2400 - 600 = 1800
 Using monthly compound interest formula,
CI = P(1 + (r/12) )12t - P
Put the values,
1800 = 600(1+ (r/12))12×2 - 600
4 = (1+ (r/12))24
r = 71.4
Answer: The Interest rate on the given amount of money is 71.4%.

Example 3: Calculate the monthly compound interest on the sum of $6000 borrowed at the rate of 10% for
2 years.
Solution:
To find: Monthly compound interest
P=$6000, r=10%, t=2years (given)
CI = P(1 + (r/12) )12t - P
Put the values,
= 6000(1+10/12)12×2 – 6000
= 7322.35 – 6000 = 1322.35
Answer: The monthly compound interest for 2 years is $1322.35

PROBABILITY
Example Question #1 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome
A jar contains 10 red marbles, 4 white marbles, and 2 blue marbles. Two are drawn in sequence, not
replacing after each draw.
Quantity A
The probability of drawing two red marbles
Quantity B
The probability of drawing exactly one blue marble.
Possible Answers:
Quantity A is greater.
Quantity B is greater.
The relationship cannot be determined from the information given.
The quantities are equal.
Correct answer:
Quantity A is greater.
 Explanation:
Note that there are 16 total marbles. A is simply a set of sequential events. On the first, you have
10/16 chances to draw a red. Supposing this red is not replaced, the chance of drawing a second red will
be 9/15; therefore, the probability of A is (10/16) * (9/15) = 0.375. Event B is translated into 2 events:
Blue + (White or Red) or (White or Red) + Blue. The probabilities of each of these events, added
together would be (2/16) * (14/15) + (14/16) * (2/15) = 0.2333333333; therefore, A is more probable.
Example Question #1: Data Analysis
In a bowl containing 10 marbles, 5 are blue and 5 are pink. If 2 marbles are picked randomly,
what is the probability that the 2 marbles will not both be pink?
a) 7/9
b) 5/6
c) 2/9
d) 7/8
Correct answer:
7/9
Explanation:
To solve this question, you can solve for the probability of choosing 2 marbles that are pink and
subtracting that from 1 to obtain the probability of selecting any variation of marbles that are not both pink.
The probability of picking 2 marbles that are both pink would be the product of the probability of
choosing the first pink marble multiplied by the probability of choosing a second pink marble from the
remaining marbles in the mix.
This would be 1/2 * 4/9 = 2/9.
To obtain the probability that is asked, simply compute 1 – (2/9) = 7/9.

Example Question #1 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome

Choose a number at random from 1 to 5.
Column A
The probability of choosing an even number
Column B
The probability of choosing an odd number
a) Column B is greater
b) Cannot be determined
c) Column A is greater
d) Column A and B are equal
e) Correct answer:
f) Column B is greater
Answer: a
Explanation: There are two even numbers and three odd numbers, so P (even) = 2/5 and P (odd) = 3/5.
Example Question #1 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome
Two fair dice are thrown. What is the probability that the outcome will either total 7 or include a 3?
a) 5/12
b) 1/2
c) 7/12
d) 8/9
e) 2/3
Correct answer: 5/12
Explanation: If a die is rolled twice, there are 6 * 6 = 36 possible outcomes.
Each number is equally probable in a fair die. Thus you only need to count the number of outcomes that
fulfill the requirement of adding to 7 or including a 3. These include:
16 33
25 35
34 36
43 13
52 23
61 53
31 63
32
This is 15 possibilities. Thus the probability is 15/36 = 5/12.

Example Question #1 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome

Box A has 10 green balls and 8 black balls.
Box B has 9 green balls and 5 black balls.
What is the probability if one ball is drawn from each box that both balls are green?
9
a) /14
19
b) /252
10
c) /49
5
d) /9
5
e) /14
Correct answer: 5/14
Explanation: Note that drawing balls from each box are independent events. Thus their probabilities can
be combined with multiplication.
Probability of drawing green from A:
10/18 = 5/9
Probability of drawing green from B:
9
/14
 So:
5
/9 * 9/14 = 5/14

Example Question #1 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome

The probability that events A and/or B will occur is 0.88.
Quantity A: The probability that event A will occur.
Quantity B: 0.44.
a) Quantity A is greater.
b) The two quantities are equal.
c) Quantity B is greater.
d) The relationship cannot be determined from the information given.
Correct answer: The relationship cannot be determined from the information given.
Explanation: The only probabilites that we know from this is that P(only A) + P(only B) + P (A and B) =
0.88, and that P(neither) = 0.12. We cannot calculate the probability of P(A) unless we know two of the
probabilites that add up to 0.88.

Example Question #1 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome

a is chosen randomly from the following set: {3, 11, 18, 22}

b is chosen randomly from the following set: { 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128}

What is the probability that a + b = 27?

a) 0.03
b) 0.5
c) 0.1
d) 0.04
e) 0.05
Correct answer: 0.04
Explanation: Since any of the first set can be summed with any of the second set, the addition sign in the
equation works like a conjunction. As such, there are 4 * 6 = 24 possible combinations of a and b. Only one of
these combinations, 11 + 16 = 27, works. Thus the probability is 1/24, or about 0.04.
Example Question #1 : Probability
There are four aces in a standard deck of playing cards. What is the approximate probability of drawing
two consecutive aces from a standard deck of 52 playing cards?
a) 0.05
b) 0.004
c) 0.005
d) 0.5
e) 0.4
Correct answer: 0.005
 Explanation: The probability of two consecutive draws without replacement from a deck of cards is
calculated as the number of possible successes over the number of possible outcomes, multiplied together for
each case. Thus, for the first ace, there is a 4/52 probability and for the second there is a 3/51 probability. The
probability of drawing both aces without replacement is thus 4/52*3/51, or approximately .005.

Example Question #1 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome

In a bag, there are 10 red, 15 green, and 12 blue marbles. If you draw two marbles (without replacing),
what is the approximate probability of drawing two different colors?
a) 67.57%
b) None of the other answers
c) 25%
d) 33.33%
e) 0.06%
Correct answer: 67.57%
Explanation: Calculate the chance of drawing either 2 reds, two greens, or two blues. Then, subtract this
from 1 (100%) to calculate the possibility of drawing a pair of different colors.
The combined probability of RR, GG, and BB is: (10 * 9) / (37 * 36) + (15 * 14) / (37 * 36) + (12 * 11)
/ (37 * 36)
This simplifies to: (90 + 210 + 132) / 1332 = 432 / 1332
Subtract from 1: 1 - 432 / 1332 = (1332 - 432) / 1332 = approx. 0.6757 or 67.57%

Example Question #2 : How To Find The Probability Of An Outcome

What is the probability of drawing 2 hearts from a standard deck of cards without replacement?
a) 12/52
b) 1/17
c) 13/52
d) 1/4
e) 1/16
Correct answer: 1/17
Explanation: There are 52 cards in a standard deck, 13 of which are hearts
13/52 X 12/51 =
1/4 X 12/51 =
12/ 204 =
3/51 = 1/17
 Probability
Probability defines the likelihood of occurrence of an event. There are many real-life situations in which
we may have to predict the outcome of an event. We may be sure or not sure of the results of an event. In such
cases, we say that there is a probability of this event to occur or not occur. Probability generally has great
applications in games, in business to make probability-based predictions, and also probability has extensive
applications in this new area of artificial intelligence.

The probability of an event can be calculated by probability formula by simply dividing the favorable
number of outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes. The value of the probability of an event to
happen can lie between 0 and 1 because the favorable number of outcomes can never cross the total number of
outcomes. Also, the favorable number of outcomes cannot be negative. Let us discuss the basics of probability
in detail in the following sections.

What is Probability?
Probability can be defined as the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes to the total number of
outcomes of an event. For an experiment having 'n' number of outcomes, the number of favorable outcomes can
be denoted by x. The formula to calculate the probability of an event is as follows.
Probability(Event) = Favorable Outcomes/Total Outcomes = x/n
Let us check a simple application of probability to understand it better. Suppose we have to predict about the
happening of rain or not. The answer to this question is either "Yes" or "No". There is a likelihood to rain or not
rain. Here we can apply probability. Probability is used to predict the outcomes for the tossing of coins, rolling
of dice, or drawing a card from a pack of playing cards.

The probability is classified into theoretical probability and experimental probability.

Terminology of Probability Theory

The following terms in probability help in a better understanding of the concepts of probability.

Experiment: A trial or an operation conducted to produce an outcome is called an experiment.

Sample Space: All the possible outcomes of an experiment together constitute a sample space. For example, the
sample space of tossing a coin is head and tail.

Favorable Outcome: An event that has produced the desired result or expected event is called a favorable
outcome. For example, when we roll two dice, the possible/favorable outcomes of getting the sum of numbers
on the two dice as 4 are (1,3), (2,2), and (3,1).

Trial: A trial denotes doing a random experiment.

Random Experiment: An experiment that has a well-defined set of outcomes is called a random experiment. For
example, when we toss a coin, we know that we would get ahead or tail, but we are not sure which one will
appear.

Event: The total number of outcomes of a random experiment is called an event.

Equally Likely Events: Events that have the same chances or probability of occurring are called equally likely
events. The outcome of one event is independent of the other. For example, when we toss a coin, there are equal
chances of getting a head or a tail.

Exhaustive Events: When the set of all outcomes of an experiment is equal to the sample space, we call it an
exhaustive event.

Mutually Exclusive Events: Events that cannot happen simultaneously are called mutually exclusive events. For
example, the climate can be either hot or cold. We cannot experience the same weather simultaneously.

Probability Formula
The probability formula defines the likelihood of the happening of an event. It is the ratio of favorable outcomes
to the total favorable outcomes. The probability formula can be expressed as,

probability formula

where,

P(B) is the probability of an event 'B'.

n(B) is the number of favorable outcomes of an event 'B'.
n(S) is the total number of events occurring in a sample space.
Different Probability Formulas
Probability formula with addition rule: Whenever an event is the union of two other events, say A and B, then
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A∩B)
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A∩B)

Probability formula with the complementary rule: Whenever an event is the complement of another event,
specifically, if A is an event, then P(not A) = 1 - P(A) or P(A') = 1 - P(A).
P(A) + P(A′) = 1.
Probability formula with the conditional rule: When event A is already known to have occurred and the
probability of event B is desired, then P(B, given A) = P(A and B), P(A, given B). It can be vice versa in the
case of event B.
P(B∣A) = P(A∩B)/P(A)

Probability formula with multiplication rule: Whenever an event is the intersection of two other events, that is,
events A and B need to occur simultaneously. Then P(A and B) = P(A)⋅P(B).
P(A∩B) = P(A)⋅P(B∣A)

Example 1: Find the probability of getting a number less than 5 when a dice is rolled by using the probability
formula.

Solution

To find:
Probability of getting a number less than 5
Given: Sample space = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Getting a number less than 5 = {1,2,3,4}
Therefore, n(S) = 6
n(A) = 4
Using Probability Formula,
P(A) = (n(A))/(n(s))
p(A) = 4/6
m = 2/3

Answer: The probability of getting a number less than 5 is 2/3.

Example 2: What is the probability of getting a sum of 9 when two dice are thrown?

Solution:

There is a total of 36 possibilities when we throw two dice.

To get the desired outcome i.e., 9, we can have the following favorable outcomes.
(4,5),(5,4),(6,3)(3,6). There are 4 favorable outcomes.
Probability of an event P(E) = (Number of favorable outcomes) ÷ (Total outcomes in a sample space)
Probability of getting number 9 = 4 ÷ 36 = 1/9

Answer: Therefore the probability of getting a sum of 9 is 1/9.

Probability Tree Diagram

A tree diagram in probability is a visual representation that helps in finding the possible outcomes or the
probability of any event occurring or not occurring. The tree diagram for the toss of a coin given below helps in
understanding the possible outcomes when a coin is tossed and thus in finding the probability of getting a head
or tail when a coin is tossed.

probability tree diagram for any event

Types of Probability
There can be different perspectives or types of probabilities based on the nature of the outcome or the approach
followed while finding the probability of an event happening. The four types of probabilities are,
• Classical Probability
• Empirical Probability
• Subjective Probability
• Axiomatic Probability
Classical Probability
Classical probability, often referred to as the "priori" or "theoretical probability", states that in an
experiment where there are B equally likely outcomes, and event X has exactly A of these outcomes, then the
probability of X is A/B, or P(X) = A/B. For example, when a fair die is rolled, there are six possible outcomes
that are equally likely. That means, there is a 1/6 probability of rolling each number on the die.
Empirical Probability
The empirical probability or the experimental perspective evaluates probability through thought
experiments. For example, if a weighted die is rolled, such that we don't know which side has the weight, then
we can get an idea for the probability of each outcome by rolling the die number of times and calculating the
proportion of times the die gives that outcome and thus find the probability of that outcome.
Subjective Probability
Subjective probability considers an individual's own belief of an event occurring. For example, the
probability of a particular team winning a football match on a fan's opinion is more dependent upon their own
belief and feeling and not on a formal mathematical calculation.
Axiomatic Probability
In axiomatic probability, a set of rules or axioms by Kolmogorov are applied to all the types. The
chances of occurrence or non-occurrence of any event can be quantified by the applications of these axioms,
given as,
The smallest possible probability is zero, and the largest is one.
An event that is certain has a probability equal to one.
Any two mutually exclusive events cannot occur simultaneously, while the union of events says only one of
them can occur.
Finding the Probability of an Event
In an experiment, the probability of an event is the possibility of that event occurring. The probability of
any event is a value between (and including) "0" and "1".
Events in Probability
In probability theory, an event is a set of outcomes of an experiment or a subset of the sample space.
If P(E) represents the probability of an event E, then, we have,
P(E) = 0 if and only if E is an impossible event.
P(E) = 1 if and only if E is a certain event.
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1.
Suppose, we are given two events, "A" and "B", then the probability of event A, P(A) > P(B) if and only if
event "A" is more likely to occur than the event "B". Sample space(S) is the set of all of the possible outcomes
of an experiment and n(S) represents the number of outcomes in the sample space.
P(E) = n(E)/n(S)
P(E’) = (n(S) - n(E))/n(S) = 1 - (n(E)/n(S))
E’ represents that the event will not occur.
Therefore, now we can also conclude that, P(E) + P(E’) = 1
Coin Toss Probability
Let us now look into the probability of tossing a coin. Quite often in games like cricket, for making a decision
as to who would bowl or bat first, we sometimes use the tossing of a coin and decide based on the outcome of
the toss. Let us check as to how we can use the concept of probability in the tossing of a single coin. Further, we
shall also look into the tossing of two and three coming respectively.
Tossing a Coin
A single coin on tossing has two outcomes, a head, and a tail. The concept of probability which is the ratio of
favorable outcomes to the total number of outcomes can be used to find the probability of getting the head and
the probability of getting a tail.
Total number of possible outcomes = 2; Sample Space = {H, T}; H: Head, T: Tail
P(H) = Number of heads/Total outcomes = 1/2
P(T)= Number of Tails/ Total outcomes = 1/2
Tossing Two Coins
In the process of tossing two coins, we have a total of four outcomes. The probability formula can be used to
find the probability of two heads, one head, no head, and a similar probability can be calculated for the number
of tails. The probability calculations for the two heads are as follows.
Total number of outcomes = 4; Sample Space = {(H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T)}
P(2H) = P(0 T) = Number of outcome with two heads/Total Outcomes = 1/4
P(1H) = P(1T) = Number of outcomes with only one head/Total Outcomes = 2/4 = 1/2
 P(0H) = (2T) = Number of outcome with two heads/Total Outcomes = 1/4
Tossing Three Coins
The number of total outcomes on tossing three coins simultaneously is equal to 23 = 8. For these outcomes, we
can find the probability of getting one head, two heads, three heads, and no head. A similar probability can also
be calculated for the number of tails.
Total number of outcomes = 23 = 8 Sample Space = {(H, H, H), (H, H, T), (H, T, H), (T, H, H), (T, T, H), (T,
H, T), (H, T, T), (T, T, T)}
P(0H) = P(3T) = Number of outcomes with no heads/Total Outcomes = 1/8
P(1H) = P(2T) = Number of Outcomes with one head/Total Outcomes = 3/8
P(2H) = P(1T) = Number of outcomes with two heads /Total Outcomes = 3/8
P(3H) = P(0T) = Number of outcomes with three heads/Total Outcomes = 1/8
Dice Roll Probability
Many games use dice to decide the moves of players across the games. A dice has six possible outcomes and
the outcomes of a dice is a game of chance and can be obtained by using the concepts of probability. Some
games also use two dice, and there are numerous probabilities that can be calculated for outcomes using two
dice. Let us now check the outcomes, their probabilities for one dice and two dice respectively.
Rolling One Dice
The total number of outcomes on rolling a die is 6, and the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Here we shall
compute the following few probabilities to help in better understanding the concept of probability on rolling one
dice.
P(Even Number) = Number of even number outcomes/Total Outcomes = 3/6 = 1/2
P(Odd Number) = Number of odd number outcomes/Total Outcomes = 3/6 = 1/2
P(Prime Number) = Number of prime number outcomes/Total Outcomes = 3/6 = 1/2
Rolling Two Dice

The total number of outcomes on rolling two dice is 62 = 36. The following image shows the sample
space of 36 outcomes on rolling two dice.
Sample Space of Outcomes of Two Dice - Probability
Let us check a few probabilities of the outcomes from two dice. The probabilities are as follows.
 Probability of getting a doublet(Same number) = 6/36 = 1/6
Probability of getting a number 3 on at least one dice = 11/36
Probability of getting a sum of 7 = 6/36 = 1/6
As we see, when we roll a single die, there are 6 possibilities. When we roll two dice, there are 36
possibilities. When we roll 3 dice we get 216 possibilities. So a general formula to represent the number of
outcomes on rolling 'n' dice is 6n.
Probability of Drawing Cards
A deck containing 52 cards is grouped into four suits of clubs, diamonds, hearts, and spades. Each of the clubs,
diamonds, hearts, and spades have 13 cards each, which sum up to 52. Now let us discuss the probability of
drawing cards from a pack. The symbols on the cards are shown below. Spades and clubs are black cards.
Hearts and diamonds are red cards.

Sample Space of Playing Cards

The 13 cards in each suit are ace, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, jack, queen, king. In these, the jack, the queen,
and the king are called face cards. We can understand the card probability from the following examples.
The probability of drawing a black card is P(Black card) = 26/52 = 1/2
The probability of drawing a hearts card is P(Hearts) = 13/52 = 1/4
The probability of drawing a face card is P(Face card) = 12/52 = 3/13
The probability of drawing a card numbered 4 is P(4) = 4/52 = 1/13
The probability of drawing a red card numbered 4 is P(4 Red) = 2/52 = 1/26

Probability Theorems
The following theorems of probability are helpful to understand the applications of probability and also
perform the numerous calculations involving probability.
Bayes' Theorem on Conditional Probability
Bayes' theorem describes the probability of an event based on the condition of occurrence of other
events. It is also called conditional probability. It helps in calculating the probability of happening of one event
based on the condition of happening of another event.

For example, let us assume that there are three bags with each bag containing some blue, green, and yellow
balls. What is the probability of picking a yellow ball from the third bag? Since there are blue and green colored
balls also, we can arrive at the probability based on these conditions also. Such a probability is called
conditional probability.

Law of Total Probability

If there are n number of events in an experiment, then the sum of the probabilities of those n events is always
equal to 1.
P(A1)+P(A2)+P(A3)+....P(An)=1

Example 1: What is the probability of getting a sum of 10 when two dice are thrown?
Solution:
There are 36 possibilities when we throw two dice.
 The desired outcome is 10. To get 10, we can have three favorable outcomes.
{(4,6),(6,4),(5,5)}
Probability of an event = number of favorable outcomes/ sample space
Probability of getting number 10 = 3/36 =1/12
Answer: Therefore the probability of getting a sum of 10 is 1/12.

Example 2: In a bag, there are 6 blue balls and 8 yellow balls. One ball is selected randomly from the bag. Find
the probability of getting a blue ball.
Solution:
Let us assume the probability of drawing a blue ball to be P(B)
Number of favorable outcomes to get a blue ball = 6
Total number of balls in the bag = 14
P(B) = Number of favorable outcomes/Total number of outcomes = 6/14 = 3/7
Answer: Therefore the probability of drawing a blue ball is 3/7.

Example 3: There are 5 cards numbered: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Find the probability of picking a prime number,
and putting it back, you pick a composite number.
Solution:
The two events are independent. Thus we use the product of the probability of the events.
P(getting a prime) = n(favorable events)/ n(sample space) = {2, 3, 5}/{2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = 3/5
p(getting a composite) = n(favorable events)/ n(sample space) = {4, 6}/{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}= 2/5
Thus the total probability of the two independent events= P(prime) × P(composite)
= 3/5 × (2/5)
= 6/25
Answer: Therefore the probability of picking a prime number and a prime number again is 6/25.

Example 4: Find the probability of getting a face card from a standard deck of cards using the
probability formula.
Solution: To find:
Probability of getting a face card
Given: Total number of cards = 52
Number of face cards = Favorable outcomes = 12
Using Probability Formula,
Probability = (Favorable Outcomes)÷(Total Favourable Outcomes)
P(face card) = 12/52
m = 3/13
Answer: The probability of getting a face card is 3/13.
 Sequences
Arithmetic sequences
An arithmetic sequence is an ordered set of numbers that have a common difference between each term.
If we add or subtract by the same number each time to make the sequence, it is an arithmetic sequence.
Arithmetic sequences examples
Example 1: sequence with a term to term rule of +3.
We add three to the first term to give the next term in the sequence, and then repeat this to generate the
sequence.

Example 2: sequence with a term to term rule of -1.

We subtract 1 from the first term to give the next term in the sequence, and then repeat this to generate the
sequence.

We can work out previous terms by doing the opposite of the term to term rule.

Geometric sequences
A geometric sequence is an ordered set of numbers that progresses by multiplying or dividing each term
by a common ratio. If we multiply or divide by the same number each time to make the sequence, it is a
geometric sequence.
Geometric sequences examples
Example 3: sequence with a term to term rule of ×2.
We multiply the first term by 2 to give the next term in the sequence, and then repeat this to generate the
sequence.

Example 4: sequence with a term to term rule of ÷2.

We divide the first term by 2 to give the next term in the sequence, and then repeat this to generate the
sequence.
Quadratic sequences
A quadratic sequence is an ordered set of numbers that follow a rule based on the sequence n2 = 1, 4, 9,
16, 25, … (the square numbers).
The difference between each term is not equal, but the second difference is.

Quadratic sequences example

Example 5: sequence with common second difference of +2.
We find the first difference of the sequence and then find the term to term rule for the second difference. The
second difference will always be the same for quadratic sequences.

Special sequences
You will need to be able to recognise some important special sequences.

Special sequences examples

Example 6: square numbers
A square number is the result when a number is multiplied by itself.

The square numbers can form a sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49…
nth Term = n2
Example 7: cube numbers
A cube number is the result when a number is multiplied by itself three times.
E.g.1×1×1=1, 2×2×2=8, 3×3×3=27 etc.
The cube numbers can form a sequence: 1, 8, 27, 64, 125…
nth Term = n3

Example 8: triangular numbers

The triangular numbers as numbers that can form a triangular dot pattern.

We can generate a sequence of triangular numbers by adding one more to the term to term rule each time:

Example 9: Fibonacci numbers

We can generate the Fibonacci Sequence of numbers by adding the previous two numbers together to work out
the next term.
First and second terms:
We start with 0, 1
0+1=1, so the third term is 1.
Sequence: 0, 1, 1

Fourth Term: 1+1=2

Sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2

Fifth Term: 1+2=3

Sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3
We can continue to follow the pattern to generate an infinite sequence.
The Fibonacci Sequence:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …
The Fibonacci Sequence forms a spiral that is seen throughout nature.

Sequence rule to find a term

We use the nth term of a sequence to work out a particular term in a sequence. By substituting in the
number of the term we want to find as ‘n’ we can generate the specific term in the sequence.
E.g. What is the nth term and the 21st term of this sequence?
4, 10, 16, 22, …
The nth term of this sequence is 6n – 2.
To find the 21st term, n = 21
(6 x 21) – 2 = 124
The 21st term is 124.
E.g. Given the nth term rule, 3n + 4, find the 20th and 100th term for this sequence.
To find the 20th term, n = 20
(3 x 20) + 4 = 64
To find the 100th term, n = 100
(3 x 100) + 4 = 304. The 20th term is 64 and the 100th term is 304.

How to find the nth term of a sequence

• The nth term is a formula that enables us to find any term in a sequence.
• We will need to be able to find the nth term of a linear sequence, and the nth term of a quadratic
sequence.
• We can make a sequence using the nth term by substituting different values for the term number n into
it.
nth term of a linear sequence
In order to find the nth term of a linear sequence:
• Step 1: find the common difference for the sequence.
• Step 2: multiply the values for n = 1, 2, 3, … by the common difference.
 • Step 3: add or subtract a number to obtain the sequence given in the question.

nth term of a linear sequence example

Find the nth term for the sequence 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, ….
1. Find the common difference for the sequence.

2. Multiply the values for n = 1, 2, 3, … by the common difference.

Add or subtract a number to obtain the sequence given in the question.

nth term of a quadratic sequence

In order to find the nth term of a quadratic sequence we have to find the second difference. To do this, we
calculate the first difference between each term and then calculate the difference between this new sequence.
• Step 1: find the first difference (d1) and second difference (d2) for the sequence.
• Step 2: Halve the second difference to find a, the coefficient of n2.
(d22=a)
• Step 3: Subtract an2 from the original sequence.
• Step 4: If this produces a linear sequence, find the nth term of it.
• Step 5: Add the nth term for the linear sequence to an2 to work out the nth term of the quadratic
sequence.
nth term of a quadratic sequence example
Find the nth term rule of the quadratic sequence:
5, 14, 29, 50, 77, …
1. Find the first difference (d1) and second difference (d2) for the sequence.

The second difference d2=6.

2. Halve the second difference to find a the coefficient of n2.
(d2/2=a)
 As d2 = 6,
d2 ÷ 2 = 6 ÷ 2 = 3
This means a = 3 and so we have the sequence 3n2.
2
3. Subtract 3n from the original sequence.

4. Find the nth term for the linear sequence generated.

5. Add the nth term for the linear sequence to 3n2 to find the nth term of the quadratic sequence.
The nth term of the quadratic sequence is 3n2+2.
Use the nth term to calculate any term in a sequence
We can calculate any term in a sequence by substituting the term number into the nth term.
nth term to calculate any term in a sequence example
Example 10: find terms in the sequence with nth term = 4n+1
• For the first term, n=1
So 1st term = 4 ✕ 1 + 1 = 5
• For the 10th term, n=10
So 10th term = 4 ✕ 10 + 1= 41
• For the 100th term, n=100
So 100th term = 4 ✕ 100 + 1 = 401

Example 11: find the first three terms in the sequence n2 + 7n

• For the first three terms we use n=1, n=2 and n=3:
n=1
12+7×1=8
n=2
22+7×2=18
n=3
32+7×3=30

Use the nth term to work out whether a number is in a sequence

We can use the nth term to work out whether a number is in a sequence by putting the nth term equal to
the number and solving the equation to find n.
Because n is the term number it has to be an integer (a whole number). i.e. for the 1st term n=1, for
the 9th term n=9 etc. When n is an integer then the number is in the sequence.

nth term to work out whether a number is in a sequence examples

Example 12: when n is an integer then the number is in the sequence
Is 25 a number in the sequence generated by the nth term 4n+1?
Let’s put 25 equal to 4n+1 and solve the equation.
4n+1=25
4n=24
n=64
As 6 is an integer this means that 25 is the 6th term in the sequence.
So 25 is a number in the sequence.

Example 13: when n is not an integer then the number is not in the sequence
Is 60 a number in the sequence generated by the nth term 4n+1?
Let’s put 60 equal to 4n+1 and solve the equation.
4n+1=60
4n=59
n=14.754
As 14.75 is not an integer this means that 60 is not a number in the sequence.

Solve problems using algebra in sequences

We can write any type of sequence described above using algebraic terms rather than numerical terms.
For example, the sequence,
3a 3a+2 3a+4 3a+6
is an arithmetic sequence, because we add 2 each time to get from one term to the next. We can apply skills
such as solving linear equations and solving simultaneous equations to sequences with algebraic terms.

Example 14: A Fibonacci sequence

The first three terms of a Fibonacci sequence are,
a a+2 2a+2
The 3rd term is 12.
Find the value of the 4th term.
First we form and solve an equation using the information given about the 3rd term:
 2a+2=12
2a=10
a=5
We also need to find an algebraic expression for the 4th term. To get the next term in a Fibonacci sequence, we
add the two previous terms. So the 4th term will be the sum of the 2nd and 3rd terms:
(a+2)+(2a+2)=3a+4
To find the value of the 4th term, substitute a=5 to get 3(5)+4=19
So the 4th term is 19.

Common Misconceptions
• Mixing up arithmetic and geometric and quadratic sequences
• Arithmetic sequences are generated by adding or subtracting the same amount each time – they
have a common difference d.
• Geometric sequences are generated by multiplying or dividing by the same amount each time –
they have a common ratio r.
• Quadratic sequences have a common second difference d2.
• Mixing up working out a term in a sequence with whether a number appears in a sequence
In order to find any term in a sequence using the nth term we substitute a value for the term number into it.
E.g. 4n+1
• For the 5th term n=5,
So 5th term=4(5)+1=21
• For the 8th term n=8
So 8th term=4(8)+1=33
In order to work out whether a number appears in a sequence using the nth term we put the number equal to
the nth term and solve it. If n (the term number) is an integer the number is in the sequence, if n is not an integer
the number is not in the sequence.

E.g. Is 22 a number in the sequence with nth term = 4n+1?

4n+1=22
4n=21
n=5.25
As 5.25 is not an integer this means that 22 is not a number in the sequence.
Practice sequences questions 4. Generate the first 666 terms of the sequence 3n−4
1. Find the nth term of 1,5,9,13,… a) −4,−1,2,5,8,11
b) 3,−1,−5,−9,−13,−17
a) 4n−3 c) 4,12,36,108,324,972
b) n+4 d) −1,2,5,8,11,14,…
c) 4n+1
d) 4n
5. Work out the 101010th term of the
sequence 25−n2
2. Find the nth term of 7, 4, 1,−2,−5,…
a) 15
a) 7n−3 b) 5
b) n−3 c) −75
c) −3n+4 d) −100
d) −3n+10

6. Write down the next three terms in this

3. Find the nth term of 6,17,32,51,74 sequence: 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,…
a) n2+5 a) 11,14,17
b) 2n2+5n−12 b) 13,21, 34
c) 11n−5 c) 12,17, 23
d) 4n2+24 d) 14,25, 47

Layers of Atmosphere
The different layers of the atmosphere
The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature, as shown in the figure below. These
layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. A further region, beginning
about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called the exosphere.
The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of our weather - clouds,
rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance above the earth increases,
by about 6.5°C per kilometre. The actual change of temperature with height varies from day to day, depending
on the weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the water
vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with height is a result of the decreasing
pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands (because of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools.
So air higher up is cooler than air lower down.
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. This is where the air motion is
determined by the properties of the Earth's surface. Turbulence is generated as the wind blows over the Earth's
surface, and by thermals rising from the land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence redistributes heat and
moisture within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants and other constituents of the atmosphere.
The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7 -
10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the equator.
The Stratosphere
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the ozone in the
atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation
from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over
the winter pole.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from skin cancer and
other health damage. However chemicals (called CFCs or freons, and halons) which were once used in
refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers have reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere,
particularly at polar latitudes, leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole".
Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect the ozone hole will eventually
recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow process.
The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the temperature again decreases with
height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause".
The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures again increase with
height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from
the sun.
The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since the energetic
solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge. The
temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day and between the seasons, as do the numbers of
ions and electrons which are present. The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive
shortwave radio broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts of the world.
The Exosphere
The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen atoms,
but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow "ballistic" trajectories under the influence of
gravity, and some of them escape right out into space.
The Magnetosphere
The earth behaves like a huge magnet. It traps electrons (negative charge) and protons (positive),
concentrating them in two bands about 3,000 and 16,000 km above the globe - the Van Allen "radiation" belts.
This outer region surrounding the earth, where charged particles spiral along the magnetic field lines, is called
the magnetosphere.

Chemical Balancing
Writing Chemical Equations
A chemical equation represents the changes that occur during a chemical reaction. A chemical equation
has the general form:
Reactants → Products
An example of a simple chemical reaction is the reaction in which hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2)
combine to produce water (H2O). In this reaction, the reactants are hydrogen and oxygen and the product is
water. To write the chemical equation for this reaction, you would start by writing the reactants on the left and
the product on the right, with an arrow between them to show the direction in which the reaction occurs:
Equation 1:
H2 + O2 → H2O
Q: Look closely at equation 1. There’s something wrong with it. Do you see what it is?
A: All chemical equations must be balanced. This means that there must be the same number of each type of
atom on both sides of the arrow. That’s because mass is always conserved in chemical reactions. Count the
number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on each side of the arrow. There are two hydrogen atoms in
both reactants and products. There are two oxygen atoms in the reactants but only one in the product. Therefore,
equation 1 is not balanced.

Using Coefficients
Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. A coefficient is a number placed in front of a
chemical symbol or formula. It shows how many atoms or molecules of the substance are involved in the
reaction. For example, two molecules of hydrogen would be written as 2 H2, and two molecules of water would
be written 2 H2O. A coefficient of 1 usually isn’t written. Coefficients can be used to balance equation 1
(above) as follows:
Equation 2:
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
Equation 2 shows that two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to produce two molecules
of water. The two molecules of hydrogen each contain two hydrogen atoms and so do the two molecules of
water. Therefore, there are now four hydrogen atoms in both reactants and products.
Q: Is equation 2 balanced?
A: Count the oxygen atoms to find out. There are two oxygen atoms in the one molecule of oxygen in the
reactants. There are also two oxygen atoms in the products, one in each of the two water molecules. Therefore,
equation 2 is balanced.

Steps in Balancing a Chemical Equation

Balancing a chemical equation involves a certain amount of trial and error. In general, however, you should
follow these steps:
1. Count each type of atom in reactants and products. Does the same number of each atom appear on both
sides of the arrow? If not, the equation is not balanced, and you need to go to step 2.
2. Place coefficients, as needed, in front of the symbols or formulas to increase the number of atoms or
molecules of the substances. Use the smallest coefficients possible. Warning! Never change the
subscripts in chemical formulas. Changing subscripts changes the substances involved in the reaction.
Change only the coefficients.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the equation is balanced.
Q: Balance this chemical equation for the reaction in which nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) combine to form
ammonia (NH3):
N2 + H2 → NH3
A: First count the nitrogen atoms on both sides of the arrow. There are two nitrogen atoms in the reactants so
there must be two in the products as well. Place the coefficient 2 in front of NH3 to balance nitrogen:
 N2 + H2 → 2 NH3
Now count the hydrogen atoms on both sides of the arrow. There are six hydrogen atoms in the products so
there must also be six in the reactants. Place the coefficient 3 in front of H2 to balance hydrogen:
N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
Summary
• A chemical equation represents the changes that occur during a chemical reaction. It has the general
form: Reactants → Products. All chemical equations must be balanced. This means that there must be
the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the arrow.
• Coefficients are used to balance chemical equations. A coefficient is a number placed in front of a
chemical symbol or formula. It shows how many atoms or molecules of the substance are involved in
the reaction.
• To balance a chemical equation, place coefficients as needed in front of the symbols or formulas so the
same number of each type of atom occurs in both reactants and products.
Review
1. Which of the following chemical equations is balanced?
a. Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
b. 2 Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
c. 2 Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
d. Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
2. Balance this chemical equation: CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
3. Sam was given the following equation to balance: H2O → H2 + O2. She balanced it as follows:
2 HO → H2 + O2. What did she do wrong? What is the correct way to balance the equation?

VOLCANO’S PARTS
There are several parts of a volcano, each working together to produce an eruption. The main volcano
parts include:
Ash Cloud - A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions:
When a volcano erupts, it spews ash high into the air. The ash can create dangerous ash clouds that can drift for
miles. These clouds can also contain tiny particles of glass that cause serious damage to eyes and lungs.
Ash Clouds are large clouds of gas and dust ejected from a volcano. They can travel 10,000s of Miles! The ash
can be extremely hot and cause wildfires, even far away from the eruption site. Rainfall can wash out light
volcanic ash, causing mudslides; heavier tephra deposits can cause roofs to collapse under the weight. Some
volcanoes create significant weather changes when they erupt because of the ash particles in the air blocking
sunlight and reflecting heat.
Crater - The mouth of a volcano, which surrounds the vent:
One of the most exciting bits, when you look inside a volcano for kids, is the crater. In a crater, the mouth of a
volcano, there is an opening to the magma chamber below. The shape of this opening can vary from circular to
oval or elliptical. These craters are formed by explosions caused when hot molten rock and ash escape from the
magma chambers below ground.
The rim around a crater has two basic shapes: scalloped and crenulated. Scalloped rims have ledges that form
long curves in one direction around their circumference while crenulated rims only have little jagged
projections on them.
Many volcanoes emit smoke (volcanic gases) as well as lava (molten rock). A volcanic eruption happens when
pressure builds up deep underground until it forces open cracks in the ground. Volcanic eruptions can release
clouds of poisonous gases and molten rocks, known as lava.
Conduit - An underground passage which magma travels through:
One of the most important volcano parts is the conduit, which is an underground passage through which magma
travels to the surface of a volcano. The molten rock rises in the conduit, because it is less dense than
surrounding solid rock. When it reaches the open air, it starts to cool and turn into lava.
The shapes of conduits are created by explosive eruptions that blast out large chunks of rock or by lava flows
that force out the ground around them.
Vent - An opening in the surface of the Earth through which volcanic materials can escape:
The vent of a volcano is the opening through which lava, ash and gas explode out. Volcanoes are usually
situated on land or underneath the ocean floor - not in the sky. The gases become trapped inside until they build
up enough pressure to blast their way out. This accumulation of pressure can happen when magma heats up
rocks beneath it. The rocks then expand, but get squashed by the weight of other layers above.
Magma chamber - A large underground pool of liquid rock found beneath the surface of the Earth:
A magma chamber is a large underground pool of molten rock found beneath the surface of the earth. The
molten rock in the chamber, known as magma, acts like a filled bath - it takes up space and puts pressure on
anything around it. This pressure builds until it finally has to escape somewhere
Lava – Liquid rock that flows out from a volcano:
Lava is a liquid rock which is formed when gas bubbles in molten rocks called magma force out the ground
around them. Magma contains a lot of dissolved gases and as it rises to the surface pressure decreases. This
allows bubbles to form and an eruption occurs.
Magma – Liquid rock inside a volcano. It can be runny or viscous (thick):
Magma is found inside a volcano and consists of molten rock. It can be runny or viscous depending on how
much gas it contains. If magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava and erupts from a volcano. Magma rises
because of the pressure difference between the magma and rocks around it: as more bubbles form in the magma,
the pressure gets even higher.
You can see how all the different parts of a volcano come together with this useful illustration:
 WW2: Key Events

A comprehensive collection selected by British Pathé of the key events that took place.
If you are unable to find what you are looking for, you can explore the entire archive using the search bar at the
top of this page.
If you are interested in licensing any of the material, please contact [email protected].

1939: Hitler invades Poland

Hitler’s invasion of Poland on 1st September 1939 marked the beginning of WW2 in Europe.

1940 (1): Rationing

January 1940 saw the start of rationing in Britain. The following films show rationing throughout the war and
the effect it had on peoples lives.

1940 (2): Blitzkrieg

1940 saw France, Holland and Belgium become overwhelmed by German “Blitzkrieg”.

1940 (3): Churchill Becomes Prime Minister

Following Neville Chamberlain’s resignation on 10th May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister.

1940 (4): Evacuation of Dunkirk

May 1940 saw the evacuation of British Expeditionary Forces from Dunkirk. The operation was put in place
after British, French and Belgian troops found themselves surrounded and cut off by the Germans, during the
Battle of France.

1940 (5): Battle of Britain

Films related to the air battle for Britain from July to October 1940.

1941 (1): Operation Barbarossa

Hitler began Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the codename for the invasion of the Soviet Union. These
films outline the event.

1941 (2): The Blitz

German Blitzkrieg on the United Kingdom lasted 8 months, from September 1940 to May 1941. Here is a
selection of footage showing the destruction caused and what life during the Blitz was like.
1941 (3): Allies Take Tobruk
Operation Crusader saw the relief of by the Allies on 27th November 1941. Take a look at footage of Tobruk
here.

1941 (4): Pearl Harbor

The Japanese military strike on the US naval base Pearl Harbor, was a turning point in WW2 as it led to
America’s entry into the war.

1942 (1): Battle of Stalingrad

The Battle of Stalingrad which began on 23 August 1942, was a turning point in WW2. It was the German
army’s first major setback, which they never fully managed to recover from. Here is a selection of films
outlining the event.

1942 (2): El Alamein

The Allied victory at El Alamein on 11th November 1942, was a turning point in the Western Desert
Campaign. Below is footage of the events that took place in El Alamein.

1942 (3): Singapore Falls to Japanese

The Japanese invaded Singapore in the February of 1942. As Singapore was a British stronghold, Churchill
referred to the event as the “worst disaster” in military history.

1942 (4): Battle of Midway

The Battle of Midway took place in the Pacific in the June of 1942, it was a crucial and decisive naval battle,
which eventually saw the Americans as victorious.

1943 (1): Surrender at Stalingrad

German defeat at Stalingrad was a turning point in WW2 and is regarded as one of the bloodiest battles in
modern history.

1943 (2): North African Surrender

Allied Operation Torch landings and battles against Vichy France led to the surrender of Axis powers in North
Africa. The Allied victory in North Africa laid the pathway for the Italian Campaign.

1943 (3): Invasion of Italy

The Allied invasion of Italy took place on 3rd September 1943, following the successful invasion of Sicily.
1943 (4): Burma
British and Indian forces fight the Japanese in Burma.

1944 (1): Battle of Anzio

The Allies landed at Anzio on 22nd January 1944, as part of the Italian campaign against the German forces.

1944 (2): Monte Cassino

Continuing the Italian campaign, with the intention of a breakthrough to Rome, the series of four assaults by
the Allies on Monte Cassino were extremely costly for the Allies, however they eventually managed to drive the
German forces back.

1944 (3): Soviet Offensive

1944 saw the Soviet offensive gather pace in Eastern Europe.

1944 (4): D-Day

The Allied invasion of France began on 6th June 1944. It led to the eventual liberation of France from the
Nazis and contributed to the Allies victory in the war. See below footage of the event.

1944 (5): Paris Liberated

Paris was liberated from the Nazis on 25th August 1944. See below celebration scenes follow the capital’s
liberation.

1944 (6): Guam Liberated

On 10th August 1944 the Americans regained Guam from the Japanese during the Pacific campaign.

1944 (7): Iwo Jima Bombed

During the Pacific campaign.

1945 (1): Liberation of Concentration Camps

The extent of Nazi brutality was revealed when the Soviet army liberated Auschwitz in early 1945.
1945 (2): Russians take Berlin
Soviet forces had surrounded the city of Berlin by 24th April 1945, they began to make their way into the city
centre, resulting in the eventual fall of Berlin on 2nd May. Below is footage of the Russians taking Berlin.

1945 (3): German Surrender

Following the fall of Berlin, German forces began to surrender.

1945 (4): Truman Becomes President

Following President Roosevelt’s death on 12th April 1945, Vice President Harry S. Truman assumed the role
of President.

1945 (5): The Battle of Okinawa

The Battle of Okinawa was the bloodiest of the Pacific Campaign, and given the heavy losses sustained,
America reconsidered their approach to invading the Japanese home islands.

1945 (6): Hiroshima and Nagasaki

The final stage of WW2 saw American forces drop atomic bombs on the Japanese cities Hiroshima and
Nagaski in August 1945, killing at least 129,000 people.

1945 (7): Japan Surrenders

The surrender of Japan on 15th August 1945 saw the hostilities of WW2 finally brought to a close.