DEE-II-

(S4)
Lecture-2
Electrical Measurement &Control
Transducers-Potentiometer, strain gauge,
Bourden tube, Bellows and Diaphragm

Utapl Chakraborty
A.P.C.Ray Polytechnic,
Jadavpur
Potentiometer (various types):
Resistive position transducers
A potentiometer is a resistive sensor used to measure linear displacements as well as rotary motion.
In a potentiometer an electrically conductive wiper slides across a fixed resistive element. A voltage
is applied across the resistive element. Thus a voltage divider circuit is formed. The output voltage
(Vout) is measured as shown in the figure below. The output voltage is proportional to the distance
travelled.

Principle of operation of an RPT

• The principle of the resistive position transducer is that the measured quantity (i.e. the
position of an object, or the distance it has moved) causes a resistance change in the sensing
element.
• One type of displacement transducer uses a resistance element with a sliding contact
linked to the object being monitored.
• Thus the resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element depends on
the position of the object.

• The output voltage depends on the wiper position and therefore is a function of the shaft
position.
• The output voltage Eout is a fraction of E, depending on the position of the wiper.
• The element is considered perfectly linear if the resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of wiper.

There are two types of potentiometer, linear and rotary potentiometer. The linear potentiometer
has a slide or wiper. The rotary potentiometer can be a single turn or multi turn.

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Types of Potentiometer:

Wire‐Wound type potentiometer

• The resistance range between 10Ω and 10M Ω
• The resistance increase in a stepwise manner.
• It is possible to construct potentiometers with 100 –200 turns per cm length (The
resolution range
between 0.1 to 0.05 mm).
• Linear potentiometers are available in many lengths up to 1m.
• Helical potentiometers are commercially available with 50 to 60 turns (The angular
displacement is between 18000 – 21600 degree)
• Potentiometer life exceed 1 million cycles.

Thin film type potentiometer

• Higher resolution.
• Lower noise.
• Longer life (exceed 10 million cycles)
• Resistance of 50 to 100 Ω/mm can be obtained with conductive plastic film.
• Commercially available resolution is 0.001 mm.

Some of the advantages of the potentiometer are

•Easy to use
•low cost
•High amplitude output
•Proven technology
•Easily available
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Some of the disadvantages of the potentiometer are
•Since the wiper is sliding across the resistive element there is a possibility of friction and
wear. Hence the numbers of operating cycles are limited.
•Limited bandwidth
•Inertial loading

Some of the applications of the potentiometer are

•Linear displacement measurement
•Rotary displacement measurement
•Volume control
•Brightness control
•Liquid level measurements using float

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Strain Gauge:
A strain gauge (also spelled strain gage) is a device used to measure strain on an object. This
resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by
the quantity known as the gauge factor.

Strain gage is one of the most popular types of transducer. It has got a wide range of applications. It
can be used for measurement of force, torque, pressure, acceleration and many other parameters.
The basic principle of operation of a strain gage is simple: when strain is applied to a thin metallic
wire, its dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire. Let us first investigate what
are the factors, responsible for the change in resistance.

• The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses electrical resistance
variation in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wire.
• It is a very versatile detector and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force or displacement.

Strain gauge: how they look like

The construction of a bonded strain gauge shows a fine wire looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the element that undergoing stress.

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The Gage Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the
semiconductor type strain gages have a very large Gage Factor, in the range of 100-150.

Metallic Strain Gage

Most of the strain gages are metallic type.

They can be of two types:
• unbonded and
• bonded.
The unbonded strain gage is normally used for measuring strain (or displacement) between a
fixed and a moving structure by fixing four metallic wires in such a way, so that two are in
compression and two are in tension, as shown in fig.

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On the other hand, in the bonded strain gage, the element is fixed on a backing material, which is
permanently fixed over a structure, whose strain has to be measured, with adhesive. Most
commonly used bonded strain gages are metal foil type.

Because of large area of the thick portion, their resistance is small and they do not contribute to
any change in resistance due to strain, but increase the heat dissipation area. Also it is easier to
connect the lead wires with the strain gage. The strain gage in fig. can measure strain in one
direction only.

But if we want to measure the strain in two or more directions at the same point, strain gage
rosette, which is manufactured by stacking multiple strain gages in different directions, is used.
Fig. shows a three-element strain gage rosette stacked at 450.

The backing material, over which the strain gage is fabricated and which is fixed with the strain
measuring structure has to satisfy several important properties. Firstly, it should have high
mechanical strength; it should also have high dielectric strength. But the most important it
should have is that it should be non-hygroscopic, otherwise, absorption of moisture will cause
bulging and generate local strain. The backing materials normally used is impregnated paper,
fibre glass, etc. The bonding material used for fixing the strain gage permanently to the

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structure should also be non-hygroscopic. Epoxy and Cellulose are the bonding materials
normally used.

Bridge Measurement Circuit- Quarter-Bridge Circuits

Half Bridge Circuits-with temperature compensation

Full-Bridge Circuits

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Application in load & Torque measurement
Strain gauge load cells are the kind most often found in industrial settings. It is ideal as it is
highly accurate, versatile, and cost-effective. Structurally, a load cell has a metal body to
which strain gauges have been secured. The body is usually made of aluminium, alloy steel,
or stainless steel.

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Bourdon tube, Bellows, Diaphragm:
Pressure measurement is the analysis of an applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a
surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many
techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.
Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are called pressure
meters or pressure gauges or vacuum gauges

Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the
bourdon tube. Each of these devices converts a fluid pressure into a force. If unrestrained,
the natural elastic properties of the element will produce a motion proportional to the
applied pressure.

Bourdon Tubes
Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into a circular shape. Under the
influence of internal pressure, a bourdon tube “tries” to straighten out into its original
shape before being bent at the time of manufacture.

Most pressure gauges use a bourdon tube as their pressure-sensing element. Most pressure
transmitters use a diaphragm as their pressure-sensing element. Bourdon tubes may be
made in spiral or helical forms for greater motion (and therefore greater gauge resolution).

A typical C-shaped bourdon tube pressure gauge mechanism is shown in the following
illustration:

When a pressure is applied to the tube, the tube stretches outwards. The tube end is
attached to a pointer using a link. The link-gear system makes the pointer moves along the
scale. The circular motion of the pinion gear drives the position of the pointer to indicate
the amount of pressure applied to the Bourdon tube.

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Bellows :
Bellows resemble an accordion constructed from metal instead of fabric. Increasing
pressure inside a bellows unit causes it to elongate.

The applied pressure makes the bellows expand. The expansion causes the bellows to get
longer. When pressure is removed, the bellows get shorter.

The movement of the bellows will be transmitted by a link connected to a pointer. The
pointer indicates the pressure applied to the bellows.

Diaphragm
A diaphragm is nothing more than a thin disk of material which bows outward under the
influence of a fluid pressure. Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which gives
them spring-like qualities. Some diaphragms are intentionally constructed out of materials
with little strength, such that there is negligible spring effect. These are called slack
diaphragms, and they are used in conjunction with external mechanisms (e.g. springs)
producing the necessary restraining force to prevent damage from applied pressure.

As pressure is applied to the rear of the diaphragm, it distends upward (away from the table
on which it rests as shown in the photograph), causing a small shaft to twist in response.
This twisting motion is transferred to a lever which pulls on a tiny link chain wrapped around
the pointer shaft, causing it to rotate and move the pointer needle around the gauge scale.
Both the needle and scale on this gauge mechanism have been removed for easier viewing
of diaphragm and mechanism.

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The diaphragm is an elastic membrane that elongates when pressure is applied to it. The
diaphragm is a single sheet which elongate, joining two diaphragms to form a capsule.

Two capsules joining to form a stacked diaphragm. Adding more capsules to the diaphragm
increases the sensitivity of the gauge.

When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it flexes. The movement is transmitted by a link
that connects to the pointer. The pointer moves to indicate the amount of pressure applied
to the diaphragm. The diaphragm stays at the original position until a pressure is applied to
it.

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