CHAPTER 11

QUANTUM AND ATOMIC PHYSICS

Classical physics

All theories of physics developed before the arrival of relativity and quantum mechanics
and any work derived from them are called classical physics.

Modern physics [First three decades of twentieth century]

The theories derived from the basic principles of relativity and quantum mechanics
which are two pillars of physics today are called modern physics.

Thermionic emission

The process by which, free electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal when
external heat energy is applied, is called thermionic emission.

Thermionic emission

Thermionic emission occurs in metals that are heated to a very high temperature. In the
other words, thermionic emission occurs, when a large amount of external energy in the form of
heat is supplied to the free electrons in the metals.

Vacuum diode

Vacuum diode is the simplest form of vacuum tube. It consists of two electrodes, a
cathode and an anode or plate. The cathode emits the free electrons by the thermionic emission.
It is an electron emitter. The anode collects the electrons. A vacuum diode is used as an AC
(alternative current) to DC (direct current) converter.

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 Vacuum diode

Some other vacuum tubes consisting of more than two electrodes are used as amplifiers.
Nowadays, vacuum tubes are obsolete, having been replaced by transistors and semiconductor
diodes.

Blackbody radiation

A blackbody is a perfect radiator of light that absorbs and emits all radiations incident on
it. Its light output depends on its temperature. The sun and stars emit radiation like a blackbody.
A blackbody is physically realized by a small hole in the wall of a cavity radiator.

A blackbody represented by a small hole in the wall of a cavity

Notes

⦁ At the end of 19th century, scientists felt that all the laws of physics are enough to
explain all the events occur in nature.

⦁ It was believed that there are only two kinds of physical entities in nature, particles and
radiation.

⦁ All particles obey Newton’s laws of motion and radiation obeys Maxwell’s equations of
electromagnetism.

⦁ These laws are nowadays known as the laws of classical physics.

⦁ The experiments of the modern physics (such as blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect
and Compton effect) could not be explained by the laws of classical physics.

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 Intensity Vs wavelength curve of the blackbody radiation of different
temperature

Blackbody radiation

When a blackbody is heated, the radiation it emits is called blackbody radiation.

Intensity of radiation

Intensity of radiation is the energy emitted from unit area of the surface in one second.

The variation of intensity with the wavelength of this radiation at a given temperature
gives a blackbody spectrum.

Wien’s Law

The wavelength at which maximum intensity occurs (λmax) is inversely proportional to

the absolute temperature of the blackbody.

λmax

It means that the higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength λmax.

Stefan Boltzmann’s law

The total emissive power of a blackbody (ε0) is directly proportional to the fourth power
of absolute temperature.

ε0 T 4

ε0 = σ T4 [where σ = Stefan’s constant]

It means that the higher the temperature, the higher the energy radiated. These
experimental observations of the blackbody spectrum could not be explained by classical
physics.

Max Planck’s Explanation of the Blackbody Radiation and concept of Photon

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 ⦁ Detailed explanation of the blackbody radiation is given by Max Planck in 1900.

⦁ Planck proposed that the radiation resulted from a large number of identical oscillators.

⦁ Radiation is emitted or absorbed when an oscillator changes energy level.

⦁ The emitted radiation from the oscillator can be thought of as particles called photons
which carry energy.

⦁ Although they are named particles, they are chargeless and massless and travel with the
speed of light c.

Planck assumed that the energy of a photon was proportional to its frequency.

E f

E = hf = h

Where h = Planck constant = 6.626 10-34 Js

λ = wavelength of the emitted radiation (photon)

⦁ The photons with a long wavelength have low energy.

⦁ The photons with a short wavelength have high energy.

⦁ Suppose a certain amount of energy of a photon is given by hf and the number of photons
is n, then the total energy is nhf.

⦁ For different value of n, the energy must have come in discrete amounts. That is the
simple quantum concept for energy of photons.

⦁ A quantum of energy is the energy difference between the two allowed discrete values
without ever reaching intermediate values.

⦁ Quantized energies are discrete but not continuous.

⦁ Planck introduced the quantum concept as a modification of classical ideas that brought
his theory into agreement with experimental observations.

Models of Atoms

Thomson’s Model

The discovery of the electron in 1897 prompted JJ. Thomson (1856-1940) to suggest a
model of the atom. He suggested that an atom might be a spherical volume of positive charge
with electrons embedded inside it like currant in a bun or plums in a pudding. For this reason,

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Thomson’s model is called the plum pudding model of the atom.

Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom

Rutherford’s Model

Under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden performed an important experiment in 1911. It produced results which could not be
explained by Thomson’s model.

Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment

In this experiment, a thin metal foil was bombarded with a beam of positively charged
alpha particles. Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil, but a few were
deflected from their original direction through very large angles. Some particles were even
deflected backward. The whole experiment setup is kept in the vacuum.

Such large deflections were completely unexpected on the basis of Thomson’s model, in
which the positive charges are evenly distributed throughout the atom. Hence the positively
charged alpha particles would never experience large enough repulsive force to cause large-angle
deflections.

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 Rutherford’s model of the atom

On the basis of his observation, Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely
empty space with all of its positive charges and most of its mass concentrated in a small region.
This concentrated volume at the centre of the atom is called the nucleus. Negatively charged
electrons are moving around the tiny nucleus.

Bohr’s Model

In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a Danish Physicist, proposed a new model of the atom
by applying the quantum theory. In Bohr’s model, the electrons move in circular orbits around
nucleus. The electric force between the positively charged proton inside the nucleus and the
negatively charged electron holds the electron in orbit. However, only certain orbits are allowed
in this model.

Bohr’s model of the atom

The electron is never found between the allowed orbits. But it can jump from one orbit to
another. Bohr assumed that the atom does not emit energy in the form of radiation when the
electron is in an allowed orbit. Hence the total energy of the atom remains constant and it
resolved the instability of the atom which is a difficulty of the Rutherford model.

Atomic structure

⦁ All matter is made of atoms.

⦁ Atoms are too tiny to be seen with any ordinary microscope.

⦁ Atoms are composed of smaller particles called electrons, protons and neutrons.

⦁ There is a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.

⦁ Around this, electrons orbit at high speed in allowed orbits.

⦁ Protons have a positive charge and electrons have an equal negative charge, while the
neutrons are neutral.

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 An illustration of an atom

⦁ An atom has the same number of electrons as protons, so its total charge is zero. Thus,
atom as a whole is neutral.

⦁ Together protons and neutrons are known as nucleons.

⦁ Protons and neutrons have similar masses and electrons are lightest.

⦁ Protons and neutrons are about 1800 times more massive than an electron, so all of the
atom’s mass is concentrated in its nucleus. Electrons are held in orbit by the Coulomb
attractive force of the nucleus.

⦁ Protons and neutrons are bound tightly together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear
force.

Comparison of proton, neutron and electron in terms of charge and mass

Particle Position Charge (C) Mass (kg)

Proton in the nucleus +1.6 10-19 1.67 10-27
Neutron in the nucleus 0 1.67 10-27
Electron orbiting nucleus -1.6 10-19 9.11 10-31

Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number of that
element.

Notes

⦁ All materials are made from about 100 basic substances called elements.

⦁ An atom is the smallest piece of an element.

⦁ The atomic number of an element tells us how many protons or electrons are in an atom

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 of that element.

⦁ It is written as symbol Z.

⦁ Each element has its own unique atomic number.

⦁ The atomic number is sometimes called the proton number.

⦁ The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of electrons in the
atom, that is atomic number.

Mass Number

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass
number or the nucleon number.

Notes

⦁ The mass number of an element is given by symbol A.

⦁ An atom of an element with atomic number Z and the mass number A is represented by
its chemical symbol X as .

⦁ Atomic number = number of protons

⦁ Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

⦁ Number of neutrons = Mass number – Number of protons

⦁ Number of neutrons = Mass number – atomic number

⦁ Number of neutrons = A–Z

Isotopes

Atoms that have the same atomic number but different neutron number (and thus
different mass numbers) are called isotopes

They have identical chemical properties, although their atoms have different masses.
Most elements are a mixture of two or more isotopes. Hydrogen has three isotopes: protium or
hydrogen (), deuterium (), and tritium ().

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 Three isotopes of hydrogen

The Structure and Evolution of the Visible Universe

⦁ The part of the universe which we can see is termed the visible universe.

⦁ The actual universe might be bigger than the visible universe.

⦁ The part we can see is determined by the age of the universe.

⦁ The universe is 1.38 1010 years old, as indicated by currently available astrophysical
measurements.

⦁ So, the farthest away from the earth that we can see, in any direction, is 4.56 10 10 light
year, i.e. the distance light can travel in the time since the universe was formed.

⦁ To learn the fundamentals of the universe, one needs to study astronomy, astrophysics
and cosmology which are three closely related subjects.

Astronomy

Astronomy is the natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects, which are
any natural bodies outside of the earth’s atmosphere. Examples are the Moon, the Sun, planets,
stars, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies, etc.

Astrophysics

Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe,
including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior.
Among the objects studied are galaxies, stars, planets, exoplanets, the interstellar medium and
the cosmic microwave background.

Cosmology

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 Cosmology studies the universe as a whole and its phenomena at largest scales. The
difference between Astrophysics and Cosmology is the domain and scale of the study.

A brief Outline of the Universe

⦁ The earth, our planet is part of the solar system that contains eight planets and the Sun.

⦁ The Sun is a star and there are many others like it in the universe.

⦁ The closest star to our own is called Proxima Centauri.

⦁ There are approximately 1011 stars in the Milky Way galaxy.

⦁ Milky Way is one of about 1011 galaxies in the visible universe.

⦁ Therefore, the visible universe consists of roughly 1022 stars.

⦁ Galaxies cluster into groups; our group is labeled as the local group and contains about
30 galaxies.

⦁ The main force holding all of these systems together is gravity.

Units in Measuring Astronomical Distances

⦁ Astronomical unit (AU) is the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun, that is,
1.496 108 km.

⦁ Light year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year. (1 ly = 9.46
1015 m = 9.46 1012 km)

⦁ One parsec (pc) is the distance to a star that subtends an angle of 1 are sec (arc second) at
an arc length of 1 AU.

E (earth)

1 AU

θ = 1′′

S (sun) D (star)

tan θ =

SD =

10
 [

= AU

= 206264.81 AU

= 206264.81 1.496 108

= 3.08 1013 km

1 pc = 3.08 1013 km

Comparison of measuring units for astronomical distances

astronomical unit AU 1 AU = 1.496 108 km

light year ly 1 ly = 9.46 1012 km
parsec Pc 1 pc = 3.08 1013 km
1 pc = 3.26 ly
1 pc = 206 265 AU

Evolution of the Universe

⦁ Astrophysicists and astronomers have theorized that the universe must have originated at
a single point of infinite density and finite time then began to expand. This is known as
the Big Bang Theory.

⦁ After the initial expansion, the theory maintains that the universe cooled sufficiently to
allow the formation of subatomic particles, and later simple atoms.

⦁ Giant clouds of these primodial elements and later coalesced through gravity to form
stars and galaxies.

⦁ This all begun roughly 13.8 billion years ago, and is thus considered to be the age of the
universe.

Physical Data of the Visible Universe

Diameter 8.8 1026 m (28.5 Gpc or 93 Gly)

Volume 4 1080 m3
Mass (ordinary matter) 4.5 1051 kg

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 Density (of total energy) 9.9 10-27 kgm-3 (= 6 protons per cubic metre)
Age 1.38 1010 years (or) 13.799 billion years
Average temperature 2.72548 K
Contents ⦁ Ordinary matter (4.9%)
⦁ Dark matter ( 23%)
⦁ Dark energy (72%)

Review exercises

⦁ Under what condition does the thermionic emission occur?

⦁ What is vacuum diode?

⦁ Express the numerical value of the Planck constant h in terms of eVs.

⦁ Discuss essential differences among Thomson’s model, Rutherford’s model, and Bohr’s
model of an atom.

⦁ Is it possible for the atom of an element to have one electron, one proton and no neutron?
If so, name the element.

⦁ Which force holds the electrons and nucleus of an atom to form an atom?

⦁ What is the light year?

Examples

⦁ The energy of a single light photon is E = hf, the Planck’s constant h = 6.626 10-34 Js,
visible light wavelength is λ = 0.5 μm. Find the energy of the visible light. (1eV = 1.6
10-19 J)

⦁ The energy of a certain incident ray is 4.14 eV. What is the frequency of the incident
ray?

Exercises

Choose the correct answer for the following.

⦁ The main force responsible for the formation of the universe is

A. gravity C. frictional force

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 B. magnetic force D. electrical force

⦁ The approximate age of the universe is

A. 1 billion years old and 14 days C. 140 billion years old

B. 14 billion years old D. 13.7 billion years old

⦁ The first objects to form in the solar system were

A. atoms C. comets

B. stars D. planets

⦁ Which of the following correctly lists the structures in space from smallest to largest?

A. Stars, Galaxy, Universe, Solar system

B. Stars, Solar system, Galaxy, Universe

C. Stars, Solar system, Universe, Galaxy

D. Stars, Universe, Solar system, Galaxy

⦁ Our Galaxy, Milky Way, has a pinwheel shape, what type of galaxy is it?

A. elliptical C. irregular

B. fun D. spiral

⦁ Which of the following is the best estimate of the number of stars in a typical galaxy?

A. hundreds C. millions

B. thousands D. billions

⦁ Which of the following is the best estimate of the number of galaxies in the universe?

A. hundreds C. millions

B. thousands D. billions

⦁ A light year measures

A. the distance it takes light to travel in 1 year

B. the distance between stars

C. the speed of light

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 D. the wavelength of visible light

⦁ Which of the following is the smallest?

A. the earth C. a galaxy

B. the universe D. the sun

⦁ Which of the following is the largest?

A. the earth C. a galaxy

B. the universe D. the sun

⦁ What is the frequency of a photon whose energy is 66.3 eV?

( 1 eV = 1.6 10-19 J, h = 6.625 10-4 Js)

⦁ Which subatomic particle has a negative charge?

⦁ Which subatomic particle has a positive charge?

⦁ Which subatomic particle is a neutral?

⦁ What is thermal radiation? How does it differ from other form of electromagnetic
radiation?

⦁ An atom contains electrons, protons, and neutrons. Which of these particles (a) are
outside the nucleus? (b) are uncharged? (c) have a negative charge? (d) are nucleons? (e)
are much lighter than the others?

⦁ An aluminium atom has an atomic number of 13 and a mass number of 27. How many
(a) protons, (b) electrons, (c) neutrons does it have?

⦁ Chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes, with mass numbers 35 and 37. What is the
difference between the two types of atom?

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