IGCSE PHYSICS ALTERNATIVE TO PRACTICAL

PAPER 6

Measurements

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Volume

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GENERAL PHYSICS
1- Density

The density of an object can be found by measuring the mass and volume and
applying the formula above to calculate the density. For a regular object use a ruler
to measure the lengths needed to determine the volume. For an irregular object
submerge it in water and measure the displaced volume. Measure the mass of
either type of object using a measuring balance.

Inaccuracies :

1- Student’s doesn’t look from bottom of meniscus

2- Using thick string
3- Water splashes during immersing the rock
4- Use less sensitive measuring cylinder
5- Rock may contain air bubbles

Precautions:

1- Shake the rock before immersing it

2- Using thin string
3- Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error
4- Put the rock gently

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 2- Hooke’s law (spring)

1- Hang a spring to a Clamp Stand with a meter ruler parallel to it.

2- Measure the upstretched length of the spring with no attached weight.
3- Add (w1=100g/1N) weight to the spring and record the new length (stretched length).
4- Repeat it 5 time, each time adding 100g and recording the new length.
5- Using the formula extension= stretched length - upstretched length
6- draw a table and record the data
7- Plot the graph extension on x-axis and force on y-axis to get conclusion
8- Calculate gradient to get spring constant.

Precautions:
1- Wait until spring stop vibrating
2- Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error

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Control variable (repeat experiment with different material):

1- Same diameter
2- Same thickness of spring
3- Same length of spring
4- Same number of turns
3- Pendulum

We can calculate the time of one swing by measure the total time for
Number of swings (n=20 times) then use the formula
Time for one swing =total time/ no. of swings
Repeat measurement more than 5 times and calculate average

Precautions:
1- No air current in the place
2- Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error
3- Repeat and calculate average

Control variable (repeat experiment):

1- Use same stop watch

2- Release the bob from same height
3- Same number of swings
4- Same bob size
5- Same bob shape

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 4- Circumference

Inaccuracy : Precautions:

Use thick string Use thin string

There are spaces between turns No spaces between turns
Turns aren’t tangent to each other Look perpendicular to measure from ruler
Take more number of turns and calculate average

5- Balancing (moment )

 To Balance a half-meter ruler at its center

 Place ruler over pivot (at center of mass).
 Hang unequal loads m1 and m2 from either side of the pivot
 Then change their distances d1 and d2 from the center until the ruler is again balanced.
 Forces F1 and F2 are exerted by gravity on m1 and m2 and so on the ruler; the force on 100g is 0.98N.

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Difficulty How to over come

Balancing the ruler above pivot Repeat several time until balances
Mass slips over the ruler Stick the mass with ruler
The center of mass for object cover ruler reading  Measure the diameter of object
 Attach string to ruler to get value

Precautions:

1- Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error

2- Repeat and calculate average
3- Use range of mass (100g -200 g)

6- Vertical object

We are able to check object is vertically or nor by protractor or set square

7- Horizontal object

We are able to check object is horizontally by measuring height at different position

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THERMAL PHYSICS
8- Rate of cooling (or heating)

Apparatus: Heater, Thermometer, Beaker, Stopwatch, Beaker containing Water.

Procedure:

 Place heater into beaker and turn it on to raise the temperature of water to 90°C
 Stir the contents of the water and place thermometer into the beaker.
 Note the starting temperature and turn on the stopwatch.
 Take readings of the thermometer every 30 seconds for 180 seconds).
 Draw up a table
 Plot a graph time /s on x-axis and temp./℃ on y-axis to get conclusion .
 Repeat the experiment and calculate average

Precautions:

Look perpendicular to read temp. From thermometer to avoid parallax error

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 Control variable (repeat experiment):
1- Same room temp.
2- Same initial water temp.
3- Same volume of water
4- Same beaker
5- Same thermometer
6- Same air current

Inaccuracy How to over come

Heat lost to surrounding Cover container with lid
Lag container with insulator
Water initial temp close to water temp.

9- Specific heat capacity (c)

Apparatus: Solid block, Drill, Thermometer, Heater (of known power P) / voltmeter &ammeter, stop watch, balance,
Cotton wool.

Procedure:

 Drill two holes in the block.

 Measure the mass of the block by balance and record it .
 Place the heater in one of the blocks, the thermometer in the other. Use cotton wool to properly insulate/lag
the block.
 Measure the initial temperature T1of block and turn on heater for seconds
 Calculate thermal Energy Supplied by heater using formula Q=P*t or Q=V*I*t
 Measure the final temperature T2of block.
 Calculate the specific heat capacity by using the formula

 Repeat the experiment and calculate the average.

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10- Good absorber of thermal radiation

Apparatus: Electric heater, two Thermometers, dull black (can/plate), shiny white (can/plate), stop watch.

Procedure:

 Place the heater in the middle between two can (so they are have equal distance from heater).
 Place each thermometer in can with same height.
 Measure the initial temperature of cans
 Turn the heater on, measure the final temperature each 1mins for 5mins.
 Repeat the experiment and calculate the average.
 Compare the change in temperature for each can
 We expect the black can has the higher temperature because it is a good absorber of IR radiation
11- Good emitter of thermal radiation

Apparatus: source of hot water (kettle), two Thermometers, water bottle painted half matt black, stop watch.

Procedure:

 Place the water bottle in the middle between two can (so they are have equal distance from thermometer).
 Place each thermometer in can with same height.
 Pour hot water at 90℃ in the water bottle.
 Record the temperature from each thermometer each 60 seconds for 240seconds.
 Repeat the experiment and calculate the average.
 Compare the temperature from each thermometer.
 We expect the thermometer in front of black side has the higher temperature because it is a good emitter of IR
radiation.

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LIGHT
12- lens

inverted image • magnified v<u

formed • diminshed u<v

Precautions:

1- Use dark room

2- Object, lens and screen must be perpendicular to the bench
3- Repeat the experiment and calculate average
4- Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error

13- Reflection of mirror

Inaccuracies :

1- Thickness of line
2- Thickness of protractor
3- Thickness of mirror
4- Glass in front of mirror cause double refraction.

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Precautions:

1- Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error

2- Use thin line
3- Place pins as far as possible

14- Refractive index

Apparatus: source of light (light box or laser), rectangular glass blocks, pins, protractor, ruler.

Procedure:

1. Set up your apparatus as shown in the diagram using a rectangular block and placing glass block on paper.
2. Trace the glass block by pencil.
3. Turn off room light
4. Shine the light ray through the glass block
5. Place 2 pins at least 5cm apart on incident ray and 2pins on refracted ray.
6. Remove glass block and Join up crosses with a ruler
7. Draw on a normal where the ray enters the glass block by protractor
8. Measure the angle of incidence (i) and the angle of refraction(r)

9. Calculate refractive index by formula 9. repeat the experiment with different incident angle

10. record all data in table

11. plot graph sin r on x-axis and sin i on y-axis

10. Repeat experiment with different incident angle
and calculate the average 12- calculate the gradient =refractive index

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ELECTRICITY
15-Resistance of wire with [Material, Length, Area]

Inaccuracies:

1- Bad connection of sliding contact/crocodile clips.

2- Battery used up.
3- Thermal energy lost in wires due to high current.

Precautions:

1- Check zero error for ammeter and voltmeter

2- Take several reading and calculate average.
3- Look perpendicular to avoid parallax error

Precautions to overcome heat:

1- Use battery with low emf .

2- Switch on and off between reading.

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Electrical symbols

Draw best fit line:

 Calculate gradient

 Determine value from graph

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Limit of Experimental Accuracy:
We use it to check two or more values equal each other with range of accepted error ≤10%
M1=40g ,M2= 45g

R1=4.6Ω ,R2=5Ω

Directly proportional:

straight line Ratio between

Table
Graph

with +ve variable is

gradient pass constant
through origin y/x=constant
(0,0)

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Inversely proportional:

line with -ve Multiplication

Table
Graph

gradient between
variable is
constant
x*y=constant

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 EXPERIMENT:

 Variables
Independent variable on (x-axis), dependent variable on (y-axis)
 Constant variable
 Apparatus (additional )
 Draw experiment
 Experiment steps in sequence
 Repeat with different values
 Table ( label heading )
 Plot graph with labeled axis
 Conclusion
 Repeat overall and get average
 Precaution &safety

Safety Precautions
 Live wires should not be touched.
 Hot objects should not be touched with bare hands -
 gloves should be used
 Circuit connections should be checked
 While changing components of the circuit the power
should be switched off so that one should not experience
electric shocks.
 Safety goggles, gloves and other safety components
 While handling a mercury thermometer one should take
care of the mercury spills.

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  Plan an experiment to investigate how the rate of cooling depends on the metal from which each
block made

Drawing

Variables:`
Independent variable --------- type of metal block
Dependent variable --------- temperature of water for same interval

We need measuring cylinder to measure volume of water, stop watch to measure time
and thermometer to measure temperature , During experiment we keep same volume of
water, same room temperature same volume of metal block and same initial water
temp.
Place the metal block made of iron inside 100cm^3 of hot water at 90℃ for 60 seconds
then remove it to start cooling. Put thermometer inside metal block and record initial

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 temp. Then keep recording temp every 30seconds for 180 seconds, then repeat the
previous step with 5 different metals.
 Record all data in the following table

Time /s Temp./ ℃
Iron Copper Aluminum
0
30
60
90
120
150
180

Plot graph for each metal for time/s on x- axis and temp/℃ on y-axis, and comparing
them to get conclusion which metal has faster rate of cooling.
Repeat the experiment more than 3time and calculate average

OR
Calculate the rate of cooling for each metal by the following equation
(Rate of cooling = change in temp./ time )then Record all data in the following table
Metal Rate of cooling /(℃/s)
Iron
Copper
zinc

Plot bar chart for each metal for metal on x- axis and Rate of cooling / (℃/s) on y-axis
And compare to get conclusion.
Repeat the experiment more than 3time and calculate average

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