TOPIC: HEAT

General Objective: The Learner should be able to;

• Quantity heat energy in terms of specific heat capacity and latent heat capacity.
• Understand the effect heat on solids and liquids.
SUB-TOPIC: QUANTITY OF HEAT
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The Learner should be able to;
• Define heat.
• Define heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
• Describe an experiment to determine specific heat capacity by method of mixtures.
• Solving numerical problems.

HEAT CAPACITY AND CHANGE OF STATE

HEAT
It is that energy which flows from one body to another due to a temperature difference
between them.
It is that form of energy whose loss or gain leads to a temperature change.

The SI unit of heat is a Joule (J)

HEAT CAPACITY
This is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a given body by 1K.
Its unit is JK −1 .
Q = C∆T
Q = C(Tf − Ti )
Q
C=
(Tf − Ti )
Example
A metal block with a heat capacity of 9000 JK −1 is heated from 100 C to 500 C. Calculate the
quantity of heat absorbed. (360kJ)

Specific Heat Capacity

This is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance of mass of 1kg
by 1 K.
The SI unit is Jkg −1 K −1
Q = mc∆T
Q = mc(Tf − Ti )
Q
c=
m(Tf − Ti )
Examples
1. How much heat energy is given out when a piece of metal of mass 4kg and
specific heat capacity 460 Jkg −1 K −1 cools from 680 C to 600 C. (14720J)
2. Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the of 500g of salt from −50 C to 150 C.
(S.H.C of the salt solution = 4000 Jkg −1 K −1 ) (Ans: 40000J)
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3. 10kg of paraffin initially at 200 C is supplied with 220000J of heat. Given that the
S.H.C of paraffin is 2200 Jkg −1 K −1 . Calculate the final temperature reached by
paraffin. (300 C)

Quantity of Heat
When the temperature of a body changes, the quantity of heat transferred is given by:
Quantity of heat transferred = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change

Let Q = quantity of heat transferred

m = mass of substance
c = specific heat capacity of the substance
Ti = initial temperature
Tf = final temperature
Then ,
Q = mc(Tf − Ti )

An experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a metal by the electrical

method.
This method is suitable for a metal which is a good conductor of heat.

A cylindrical block of metal is drilled with two holes one for an electric heater and the
other a thermometer.
A little oil is used in the holes to ensure good thermal contact.
Heat losses are reduced by standing the block on a slab and lagging the block.

The heater circuit is connected and rheostat is adjusted to obtain suitable current.
Before switching on the current note the temperature of the block is noted. The current
and voltmeter are switched on simultaneously and the stop clock is started.
The voltmeter and ammeter are readings when the temperature has risen by about
10degrees.
The current is switched off and the clock is stopped simultaneously.
The final temperature is read on the thermometer.
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Energy received by block=energy supplied by heater.
mc(Tf − Ti ) = VIt
Specific heat capacity of metal
VIt
c=
m(Tf − Ti )

Precautions
(i) The metal block must be heavily lagged to prevent heat loss to the surroundings.
(ii) The two holes should be filled with a light oil to improve thermal contact with the
heater and thermometer.

Examples
1. The following data was obtained from an experiment. Mass of copper metal block =
200g, initial temperature of the block = 220 C, ammeter reading = 5A, voltmeter
reading = 3.0V, final temperature of the block = 300 C, time of heating 7 minutes. Use
the data to calculate the specific heat capacity of copper. What does this value mean?
(3937.5 Jkg −1 K −1 )

2. Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 2.5kg of aluminium
from 200 C to400 C, if the specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900 Jkg −1 K −1
(45000J)

3. An electric heater is used to heat 0.2kg of water for 200s. Find the p.d across the
heater, if the current is 0.5A and the temperature of the water rises from 300 C to
550 C. (S.H.C of water is 4200 Jkg −1 K −1 ) (Ans: 210V)

Experiment: to determine the specific heat capacity of a solids by method of

mixtures

The solid is weighed to find its mass, m, and heated in boiling water for some time and
temperature, 2 of the boiling water is noted.
Meanwhile a calorimeter, with the stirrer, is weighed to determine its mass, mc
A suitable amount of water is poured into the calorimeter and the calorimeter is weighed
again to find the mass of water, mw, added.
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The calorimeter with its contents is placed in its jacket.
The temperature, 1, of the water in the calorimeter is noted.
The temperature, 2, of the heated solid is noted, and the solid quickly transferred to the
calorimeter, which is then covered.
While stirring, the temperature of the contents of the calorimeter is observed and its
maximum value, 3, is noted.
Calculations:
Let c = specific heat capacity of the solid
cc = specific heat capacity of the calorimeter material
Heat lost by solid = heat gained by water and calorimeter
mc(2 - 3) = mw cw(3 - 1) + mccc(3 - 1)

(mw cw + mc cc )(3 − 1 )
 c =
m(2 − 3 )
NOTE:
The same above experiment is used to determine S.H.C of a liquid e.g water.

Precautions:
1. The calorimeter must be well lagged to limit heat losses to the surrounding.
2. The metal block must be transferred as quickly as possible from the hot water to
the calorimeter to limit heat losses to the surrounding during the transfer.

Sources of heat loss during the above experiment include:

1. Heat is lost to the surroundings during the transfer of the metal block to the
calorimeter.
2. Heat is lost to the stirrer, thermometer and calorimeter.

Example
A piece of copper of mass 50 g at 1800 C is placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 60 g
containing 40 g of water at 150 C. Ignoring losses, find the final steady temperature after
stirring.
[specific heat capacity of copper = 400 Jkg −1 K −1 ), that of water = 4200 Jkg −1 K −1 )]

Solution
Let  = the final temperature
Heat given out by copper = heat gained by water and calorimeter
0.050 x 400(180 - ) = 0.040 x 4200( - 15) + 0.060 x 400( -15)
 3600 - 20 = 168 - 2520 + 24 - 360
 212 = 6480
  = 30.60 C

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EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A LIQUID BY
ELECTRICAL METHOD

Procedure;
▪ The liquid of known mass (m) is poured into a clean and dry copper calorimeter with a
stirrer of the same specific heat capacity as the colorimeter.
▪ The heater of known power (P) and the thermometer are put in the copper container
containing the liquid.
▪ The initial temperature θ1 of the liquid is measured and recorded.
▪ Switch, S is closed and a stop clock is simultaneously started. A variable resistor is used
to maintain a steady current, I through the heater and a steady p.d, V across it.
This steady current is passed through the heater to warm the liquid for a time, t
seconds.
▪ The liquid gently stirred throughout the warming.
▪ The final stable temperature, θ2 of the liquid, the ammeter reading, I and the voltmeter
reading, V are read and recorded.
Calculate the specific heat capacity as follows:
Heat gained by liquid = Heat supplied by the heater.
mc (θ2 – θ1 ) = VIt
Specific heat capacity of the liquid ,
VIt
c=
m(θ2 − θ1 )
Assumptions made during the above experiment are;
▪ The amount of heat absorbed by the copper container, stirrer or thermometer is
negligible.
▪ No heat is absorbed by liquid from the surroundings.

Examples;
1
1. An immersion heater of 60 W was used to heat a liquid of 1kg for a minute. Find
2
the specific capacity of the liquid if the initial and final temperatures were 270 C and
870 C respectively.
SOLUTION:
Heat absorbed by water = Heat supplied by the heater
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 mc (θ2 – θ1 ) = Pt
1 × c (87 – 27) = 60 × 30
c = 30 Jkg −1 .

2. Latifah wants to have a warm bath. She mixes 5 kg of hot water at 850 C with 15 kg
of cold water at 250 C . Taking specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 Jkg −1 K −1 .
Find the final temperature of the mixture.
SOLUTION:
Heat lost by hot water = Heat gained by cold water.
m1 c (θ1 – θf ) = m2 c (θf – θ2 )
5 × 4200 (85 – θf ) = 15 × 14200 (θf – 25)
θf = 40o C

Revision exercise 16 pages 268 – 269 Longhorn book three.

REVISION QUESTIONS ON CALCULATIONS

Method of mixtures:
1. A metal block of mass 2 kg and at a temperature of 850 C is put in a copper
calorimeter of mass 30g containing 1800g of water at a temperature of 500 C. If the
final steady temperature of the three is 550 C, find the specific heat capacity of the
metal. (Take s.h.c of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1 and that of copper = 400 Jkg −1 K −1 )
(Ans:631 Jkg −1 K −1 )

2. To wash clothes of a certain fabric, water is required at a temperature of 500 C. Find

how much water at a temperature of 800 C is needed to be added to 60kg of water at
100 C to achieve this.

3. A body of mass 0.15kg is heated in boiling water at a temperature of 1000 C and is

then quickly transferred to a copper calorimeter of mass 40g containing 50g of
water at a temperature of 150 C. After stirring, the final steady temperature was
found to be 26.10 C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the body. (take s.h.c. of
copper = 400 Jkg −1 K −1 , and of water = 4200 Jkg −1 K −1 )

4. Some hot water was added to 3 times its mass of water at 100 C and the resulting
mixture has a steady temperature of 200 C. What was the temperature of the hot
water?

5. A metal block of mass 5kg is heated to 1100 C and the put into 2kg of water. The final
temperature is found to be 500 C. What was the initial temperature of the water?
(take s.h.c. of water = 4200 Jkg −1 K −1 and that of the metal = 840 Jkg −1 K −1 )

6. A cold water tap of a bath delivers water at 100 C at a rate of 30kg min-1. The hot
water tap of the bath delivers water at 700 C at a rate of 40kg min-1. The two taps are

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 left to run for 2 minutes. Determine the final temperature of the water in the bath.
Ignore heat losses.

7. A piece of aluminium of mass 2kg at 1000 C is fully immersed in in 400g of water in a

calorimeter of negligible heat capacity. The final steady temperature of the water
after stirring was 750 C. Determine the initial temperature of the water. (s.h.c of
aluminium = 900 Jkg −1 K −1 and for water = 4200 Jkg −1 K −1 )

8. The same quantity of heat was supplied to 5.0 kg of sea water and 12.0 kg of
methylated spirit. The temperature rise was 300 C and 200 C respectively. Find the
ratio of the specific heat capacity of sea water to that of methylated spirit.

Involving electrical sources of heat:

1. An electric heater rated 1500 kW is used to heat water in an insulated container of
negligible heat capacity for 10 minutes. The temperature of the water rises from
200 C to 400 C. Calculate the mass of water heated. (s.h.c of water = 4200 Jkg −1 K −1 )

2. An electric kettle of negligible heat capacity rated at 2 kW is filled with 2 kg of water

and heated from 200 C to 980 C. Assuming there are no heat losses to the
surroundings, determine the time taken to heat the water. (s.h.c of water = 4200
Jkg −1 K −1 )

3. A heating element is connected to a 240 V mains supply and a current of 1.3 A flows
through it. If it takes this element 300 s to warm 2 kg of a certain liquid from 400 C
600 C, find the specific heat capacity of this liquid.

4. A liquid X of mass 0.5 kg and specific heat capacity 4000 Jkg −1 K −1 is put in an
electric kettle connected to a 240 V mains supply and a current of 2.0 A. If the kettle
is left on for three minutes, what will be the final temperature of this liquid if it was
initially at 200 C ?

5. An electric heater that is 90% efficient operates at 240 V at a current of 1.4 A. It

takes this heater 4 × 103 s to raise the temperature of a liquid of specific heat
capacity 3600 Jkg −1 K −1 by 33.60 C. Find the mass of this liquid.

MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERTED TO INTERNAL HEAT ENERGY.

1. During the process of striking a nail using a hammer, the temperatures of both nail
and hammer head increase after some time. This is because energy is converted
from potential energy to kinetic energy and finally to internal heat energy and
sound.
2. When the brakes of any vehicle are applied, kinetic energy is converted to internal
heat energy in the brake discs.

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3. The water at the top of a water fall is usually cooler than that at its bottom. This is
because potential energy is converted to kinetic energy that is eventually converted
to internal heat energy and sound at the bottom of the water fall.
The temperature rise that occurs during conversion of mechanical energy to
internal heat energy is usually small due to heat losses to the surroundings and
sound.

Examples:
1. A class of Physics students decided to determine the specific heat capacity of water
in a waterfall. They used a sensitive thermometer to find the difference in
temperature of water at the top and the bottom of the waterfalls and obtained the
following results: height of the waterfalls = 52 m, temperature of the water at the
top = 21.540 C, temperature of water at the bottom = 21.670 C. Stating any
assumptions made, calculate a value for the specific heat capacity of water.
2. A metal fell from a height of 100m. If the specific heat capacity of the metal is 350
Jkg-1K-1, calculate the final temperature of the body given that its temperature before
falling was 260 C. State any assumptions you have made when arriving to your
answer.

Table of specific heat capacities of some solids and liquids:

Substance Specific heat capacity in 𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 𝐊 −𝟏 .
Aluminium 900
Brass 370
Copper 390
Cork 2000
Glass 670
Ice 2100
Iron 460
Lead 130
Silver and Tin 230
Water 4200
Mercury 140
Glycerol 2400
Paraffin oil 2130
Sulphuric acid 1380
Olive oil 2000

KEY FACTS ABOUT S.H.C:

1. Most metals have low specific heat capacities compared to liquids with the
exception of mercury.
2. Good conductors of heat have low specific heat capacities while poor conductors of
heat have large specific heat capacities.
3. Most of the oils that are used as lubricants have relatively large specific heat
capacities to also provide a cooling effect, since friction causes heating.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER:
4200J of heat required to increase the temperature of water by 10 C is rather high and
because of this, water is commonly used as a cooling agent in many cooling systems e.g.
car radiators, heat engines, air conditioners.

SUB-TOPIC: LATENT HEAT

The Learner should be able to;
• Define specific latent heat of vaporization and melting between latent heat and
change of state.
• Describe factors affecting rate of evaporation.
• Describe the effect of pressure on melting.
• Concept of latent heat.
• Factors affecting vaporization and melting.
• Cooling curves.
• Cooling by evaporation.
• The refrigerator.
• Experiments using methods of mixtures only.
• Discussion on vaporization and melting.
• Experimentation on specific latent heat.
• Treat latent as stored energy which is given out during condensation and
solidification, and absorbed during evaporation and melting.
• Experimentally investigate the cooling curve of water and Naphthalene.
• Explain cooling by evaporation.
• Describe how a refrigerator works.
• Define specific latent heat (Vaporization and fusion)
• Experimentally determine the specific latent heat of
- Vaporization for steam.
- Fusion for ice.
• Solve numerical problems involving specific latent heat.
• Specific latent heat of;
- Vaporization.
- Fusion.
• Numerical problems.

Latent heat is the energy required by a substance to change its state at constant
temperature.
The heat supplied goes in doing work against the intermolecular forces to increase
the molecules’ potential energy, but their kinetic energy remains the same. This is
why there is no temperature change during change of state.

Latent heat is stored energy which is given out during condensation and solidification and
absorbed during evaporation and melting.

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Latent heat of Fusion (melting)
This is the quantity of energy required to change the substance from solid state to liquid
state without change in temperature at a constant pressure.

Specific Latent heat of Fusion

This is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg of a substance from solid state to liquid
state at constant temperature and pressure.
Q = mlf
Q
lf =
m
Where l is a constant called specific latent heat of the substance.
Its SI unit is joule per kilogram (JKg −1 ).
Experiment: To Determine the Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice
A calorimeter, with stirrer, is weighed to determine its mass, mc.
Some water is poured in the calorimeter and it is weighed again to find the mass, mw, of
the water added.
The calorimeter is warmed to a few degrees, say 100 C, above room temperature and then
fitted in its jacket.
The temperature, 1, of the water is noted and small pieces of dry ice are added while
stirring until the temperature is as far below room temperature as it was above; the
temperature, 2, is noted. (Such procedure compensates for any heat transfer that
would affect the accuracy of the result).
The calorimeter is weighed once again to find the mass, m, of the ice that was added.

Heat
Calculation:
The ice melted and the resulting water warmed from 00 C to 2 while the calorimeter and
its contents cooled from 1 to 2.
Heat gained by ice is equal heat gained by water and calometer
Let l = specific latent heat of fusion of ice
cw = specific heat capacity of water
cc = specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter

Then, ml + mcw (2 – 0) = (mw cw + mc cc )(1 - 2)

(mw cw + mc cc )(1 − 2 ) − mcw 2
 l =
m

The significance of high value of specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

Ice is often used as a cooling agent e.g. ice cubes are added to juice to keep it cold. Ice a0oC
causes more cooling than water at the same temperature.
Examples

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1. How much heat will change 10 g of ice at 00 C to water 00 C (take specific latent heat
of fusion of ice to be 340,000Jkg −1 )
Q = mlv
10 × 340,000
Q = = 3400J
1000
2. What quantity of heat must be removed from 20 g of water at 00 C to change it to ice
at 00 C.
Q = mlf
20 ×340,000
= = 6800J.
1000

3. How much heat is needed to change 5 g of ice at −50 C to water at 200 C?

Q = mcθ + mlf + mcθ

5 × 2100(0−−5) 5 ×340000 5 ×(20−0)

= + + = 1752.6J
1000 1000 1000
4. An aluminum tray of mass 400 g containing 300 g of water is placed in a
refrigerator, after 80 minutes, the tray is removed and it is found that 60 g of water
remain unfrozen at 00 C. If the initial temperature of tray and its content was 20oC,
determine the average amount of heat removed per minute by the refrigerator.
Specific capacity of aluminum = 1Jg −1 K −1
Specific capacity of water = 4 Jg −1 K −1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 340Jg −1
Heat removed by the fridge = Heat lost by water from 200 C to 00 C + Heat lost by
water to ice + heat lost by tray.
= MwCw (θ2 – θ1) + Mice Lf + MtC1 (θ2 – θ1)
= 0.3 x 4000 (20 – 0) + 0.24 x 340,000 + 0.4 x 1000 (20 – 0)
= 113600J
113600
Heat removed per minute =
80

= 1420Jmin−1
Questions
1. (a) What is meant by specific heat capacity?
(b) 2 kg of ice initially at −100 C is heated until it changes to steam at 1000 C.
(i) Sketch a graph to show how the temperature changes with time.

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 (ii) Calculate the thermal energy required at each section of the graph
sketched in b(i) above.
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice is = 3.36 × 105 Jkg −1 .
Specific latent heat of vapourization of water is = 2.26 x 106 2.26 × 106 Jkg −1 .
Specific heat capacity of water = 42000 Jkg −1 k −1
Specific heat capacity of ice is = 2100 Jkg −1 k −1

GRAPH TO SHOW HOW TEMPERATURE CHANGES WITH TIME

(i) Thermal energy along AB,

Q = mice lf
= 2 × 2.1 × 10 3 (0 − −5)
= 4.2 × 104 J
Thermal energy along BC
Q = mlf
= 2 × 3.36 × 105
= 6.72 × 105 J
Thermal energy along CD,
= mcθ
= 2 × 4.2 × 103 × (100 − 0)
= 8.4 × 105J
Thermal energy along DE,
= mlv
= 2 × 2.26 × 10 6
= 4.52 × 106 J
Exercise; (leave space for the exercise)
1. State and define the 3 major methods of heat transfer.
2 (a) Distinguish between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat
of a substance.
(b) Describe an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
3. The Graph showing a heating curve of a metal
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 Explain what happens to the metal.
(i) If the metal absorbs heat at the rate of 3000JK −1 and specific heat capacity is
400JKg −1 K −1 , calculate mass of the metal.
(ii) Find the specific latent heat of the metal,

4. (a) Find the ways you would modify a liquid in glass thermometer so that it
can register temperature more quickly.
(b) Why is it usually not a good idea to have a thermometer with high heat
capacity?
5. (a) Explain why the freezing compartment of a refrigerator is at the top.
(b) A glass of orange squash contains 0.2 kg of water at temperature of
240 C. What is the minimum amount of ice you would need to add in order that
the temperature of the drink is 00 C.

LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION

The Latent Heat of Vaporisation of a liquid is the amount of heat energy required to
change the substance from liquid state to gaseous state at constant temperature and
pressure.
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION
This is the quantity of heat required to change a unit mass of a substance from liquid to
vapour at constant temperature.
Q = mlv
Where lv = specific latent heat of vaporisation and its unit is joule per kilogram
(Jkg −1 )
Example
1. Find the amount of heat required to convert 5kg of water at boiling point to steam
(Take lv of steam as 2.3 × 106 Jkg −1 )
Solution:
𝐐 = 𝐌𝐥𝐯
Q = 5 × 2.3 × 106
Q = 1.15 × 107 J

2. How much heat is needed to change 4 kg of water at 100 C to steam at 1000 C?

Solution
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 Q = mcθ + mlv
Q = (4 × 4200 × 90) + ( 4 × 2 .3 × 106 )J
Q = 10,712,000 J

3. A 3 kW electrical kettle is left on for 2 minutes after the water starts boiling. What
mass of water is boiled off in this time?
Solution
Latent heat absorbed by H20 = Heat supplied by heater
Mlv = Pt
M × 2.3 × 106 = 3 × 1000 × 2 × 60
∴ M = 0.157 kg = 157g of steam is boiled off.

4. Find the heat given out when 10 g of steam at 1000 C condenses and cools to water at
500 C.
Solution
Heat given = heat required to convert steam to water at constant temperature + heat
required to cool water from 1000 C to 500 C
Q = mlv + mc (θ2 – θ1 )
10×2300000 10 × 4200(100−50)
= +
1000 1000
= 25100J

5. Calculate the heat required to convert 2kg of water at 1000 C to steam (specific
latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 × 106 Jkg −1 ) (Ans: 4.52x106 J)
Note: Specific latent heat of vaporization of steam is about 2,260,000 Jkg −1 while specific
heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg −1 K −1 .
Since the amount of heat in steam is about 5 times of heat in boiling water, steam burns
are more fatal than burns due to boiling water.

Importance of high value of specific latent heat of vaporization

1. Because of this high value, steam is used as a heating agent e.g. cooking.
2. Can be used for sterilizing medical tools e.g. blades, forceps.
3. used in heat engines.

Experiment: To Determine Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water or steam by

method of mixtures.

Stirrer Thermometer

Flask
Calorimeter
Boiling Lagging
water
Insulating
Heat stands
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Heat shield
A calorimeter is weighed to find its mass, mc.
Some water is poured in the calorimeter, which is weighed again to find the mass, mw, of
the water added.
The calorimeter with its contents is fitted into its jacket.
Water is boiled in a flask, as shown in the diagram, to generate steam for some time.
Then the temperature, 1, of the water in the calorimeter is noted and the steam is led into
it.
After some minutes the calorimeter is disengaged and the new temperature, 2, of the
water is recorded.
The calorimeter is weighed once again to find the mass, m, of the steam condensed.
Let l = specific latent heat of vaporisation of water
Then, ml + mcw(100 - 2) = (mwcw + mccc)(2 - 1)
(mw cw + mc cc )(2 − 1 ) − cw (100 − 2 )
 l =
m
Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization of steam.

Procedure
A beaker of known mass is obtained
The mass of water in the beaker is weighed and recorded as m 1 .
The heater is switched on to heat the water in the beaker.
While water is boiling, the position of the pointer of the stop clock is read.
After time t, the mass of water m 2 , is weighed.
The mass of steam is calculated from
M = m 1– m 2

The specific latent heat of vapourization is obtained from:

Latent heat absorbed by boiling water = heat supplied by heater
mlv = pt
pt
lv =
m
Where lv is the specific latent heat of vaporization.

Examples

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1. Find the amount of heat required to convert 5kg of water at boiling point to steam
(Take lv of steam as 2.3 × 106 Jkg −1 )
Quantity of heat Q = mlv
= 5 × 2.3 × 106 J
= 11.5 × 106 J
= 1.15 × 105 J

2. How much heat is needed to change 4 kg of water at 100 C to steam at 1000 C?

Q = mlv
Q = 4 × 2 .3 × 106 J
Q = 9.2 × 106 J

3. A 3kW electrical kettle is left on for 2 minutes after the water starts boiling. What
mass of water is boiled off in this time?
Latent heat absorbed by H20 = Heat supplied by heater
m × 2.3 × 106 = 3 × 1000 × 2 × 60
m = 0.1565kg = 156.5g
4. Find the heat given out when 10 g of steam at 1000 C condenses and cools to water
at 500 C.
Heat given = heat required to cool steam to water + heat required to cool water from
1000 C to 500 C.
Q = ml V + mc (θ2 – θ1 )
10 × 2300000 10 × 4200(100 − 50)
= +
1000 1000
= 25100J
Since the amount of heat in steam is 5 times of heat in boiling water, therefore steam
is more fatal than boiling water.

Latent heat and kinetic theory

(a) Latent heat of fusion.

During change of state from solid to liquid (melting at constant temperature), the
heat supplied weakens the intermolecular forces of attraction, the molecular
spacing increases, changing from static molecules of solid to fast moving molecules
in liquid state.
The average K.E of molecules remains constant during melting because melting
takes place at constant temperature. However, the average P.E of the molecules
increases resulting into increase in the molecular spacing.
(b) Latent heat of vaporization;
During change of state from liquid to vapour, the molecules must overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction so that they gain freedom to move about
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 independently. As a result, the heat supplied is used to overcome these forces
resulting in gain in molecular potential energy but not their kinetic energy and also
the work to expand against atmospheric pressure.

Why specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is always greater than

specific latent heat of fusion for the same substance.
Specific latent heat of vaporization is always greater than specific latent heat of fusion
because for the molecules of a liquid to escape into the atmosphere, they require a lot of
heat energy to overcome both the intermolecular force of attractions and to expand
against the atmospheric pressure above the liquid surface. However, latent heat of fusion
is required to weaken the intermolecular forces of attraction of the solid molecules for
them to gain the free movement of the liquid state.

Importance of high value of specific latent heat of vapourization

1. Because of high value, steam is used as a heating agent e.g. cooking.
2. Can be used for sterilizing medical tools e.g. blades, forceps.

Exercise
Where necessary, use:
Specific capacity of copper = 400 J kg-1K-1
Specific capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1K-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 x 105J kg-1
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2.26 x 106 J kg-1
1. The specific heat capacity of a certain solution is 4000 J kg-1K-1. Calculate the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 800 g of the solution from
−50 C to 250 C.
2. A 1000 W heater is used to warm 1 kg of a liquid from a temperature of 200 C. If after
10 s its temperature is found to be 450 C, what is the specific heat capacity of the
liquid?
3. A heater was used to raise the temperature of 6 kg of water by 5 K. It was found that
the same heater raised the temperature of 14 kg of a liquid L by 5 K in same time.
Find the specific heat capacity of liquid L.
4. A copper block of mass 200 g is heated to a temperature of 1400 C and then dropped
into a copper calorimeter of mass 100 g which contains 250 g of water at 250 C.
Neglecting heat losses, calculate the maximum temperature attained by the water.
5. A heater with power rating of 200W is placed in 500 g of ice at 00 C. How long will it
take to melt all the ice?
6. A copper calorimeter of mass 40 g contains 120 g of water at 150 C. Dry steam at
100oC is bubbled through the water in the calorimeter until the temperature of the
water becomes 350 C. Find the mass of steam condensed.
7. The cooling system of a refrigerator extracts 600 J per second of heat. How long will
it take to convert 500 g of water at 150 C into ice?
Revision exercise 17 pages 290 – 291 Longhorn book 3

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 EFFECTS OF HEAT ON MATTER
Melting point is the constant temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.
When all the solid has melted and more heat is supplied the temperature of the liquid
rises again, the heat gained by the liquid decreases the cohesion force in a liquid
considerably and the speed of motion of the molecules increases steadily until the liquid
changes into a gas.

Boiling point is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes to gas (vapour).
During boiling the temperature remains constant.
If water is heated, then its temperature varies with time as shown in the figure below.

Along AB the temperature of ice rises from A to B.

Along BC the temperature remains constant when the ice melts at 00 C.
Along CD the temperature of melted ice rises from C to D.
Along DE the temperature remains constant at 1000 C.

The reverse of the above process takes place when the water cools or when heat
extracted from it.

The temperature remains constant along ED at 1000 C when steam condenses. When all of
it has condensed the temperature falls from D to C.
At 00 C the temperature remains constant along CB as water changes to ice.
The temperature again falls along BA when all water has frozen.
COOLING CURVE OF A PURE SUBSTANCE
When liquid naphthalene is cooled while its temperature is noted with time the cooling
curve obtained has the shape shown in (i) below. The curve in (ii) is one when solid
naphthalene is heated to beyond melting.
 
A

Melting point 18
B
S.3 HEAT NOTES 2019 C F G
E
In the region A to B liquid naphthalene is cooling. From B to C the substance is freezing
and giving up latent heat. There is no change of temperature. At C all the naphthalene has
solidified. So, after C the solid is cooling.

EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES ON BOILING (VAPORIZATION) AND MELTING POINTS

1. Impurities
Impurities decrease or lower the melting point of a substance. Though pure water
freezes at 00 C, Salty water would remain as water at −10 C. The extent to which
melting point is lowered depends on the concentration of impurities dissolved into
the liquid. For example when salt is added to ice, its melting point is reduces to a
value as low as −100 C.

Application
This method is used to
(a) Defreeze roads in cold countries during winter.
(b) Antifreeze material is added to the water in the car radiators to stop water from
freezing.
Researched content (SKIP THIS)
https://anhourofchemaday.wordpress.com/tag/why-do-impurities-decrease-melting-
point-but-increase-boiling-point/

When a substance contains impurities the boiling point of substance is raised.

Note
When the substance is pure then its boiling point and melting point remains the same
provided the pressure of the surrounding does not change.

Researched content (SKIP THIS)

S.3 HEAT NOTES 2019
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https://anhourofchemaday.wordpress.com/tag/why-do-impurities-decrease-melting-
point-but-increase-boiling-point/

2. Pressure on Melting (Ref: Longhorn book3 page 275)

Most substances contract when they solidify. However, a few, like water, expand on
solidification. If a substance contracts on solidifying, then application of pressure
encourages solidification, i.e pressure raises its melting point.
On the other hand, if a substance expands on solidifying, then application of
pressure makes it easier for such a substance to remain liquid, i.e pressure lowers
its melting point. This may be demonstrated by placing a block of ice on two wooden
supports and passing over it a copper wire which is supporting weights at its ends
as shown below Ice block

Copper wire

After about an hour the wire cuts through the ice but the block remains a single piece. The
pressure the wire on the ice increases, the melting point of the ice decreases and so the ice
melts. The resulting water goes above the wire, where there is no applied pressure. So, it
freezes again.
The copper wire helps conduct the heat from the freezing water above to the lower side
where its required for further melting of the ice under the wire.
The wire cuts right through the block of the ice and falls to the floor, leaving ice still in a
solid block.

Since ice contracts on freezing, an increase in pressure would help in its contraction and
hence we should expect a decrease in the melting point of ice as pressure on its surface is
increased. The melting point of ice decrease with increase in pressure.

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For substances like wax, gold, silver etc. which expand on melting, an increase in pressure
would make its expansion difficult. These substances have to be heated more in order to
melt. For such substances, the melting point increases with increase in pressure.

EVAPORATION
When a liquid is exposed to the atmosphere, some of the molecules gradually
escape from its surface, causing the liquid to change to its vapour form. This process is
known as evaporation.

Definition.
Evaporation is the process in which a liquid is converted to vapour at all temperatures.

Examples.
Both wet clothes spread out in the sun and those in the house eventually become dry but
those in the house take a longer time.
Similarly, water in a shallow dish placed in open air gradually diminishes and ultimately
disappears altogether.

EXPLANATION OF HOW EVAPORATION CAUSES COOLING.

During evaporation, Molecules move freely within a liquid and the energy is mainly
kinetic. However, there is a small force of attraction between the molecules. The molecules
are continually breaking through the surface of the liquid, but most of these are attracted
back to the liquid by the cohesive forces.
The fast moving molecules which gain enough kinetic energy are able to escape from the
attraction of other molecules and the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules is
reduced. As the temperature is the measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules, the
temperature of the liquid falls during evaporation. Thus evaporation causes cooling.

DEMONSTRATION OF COOLING CAUSED BY EVAPORATION

Tube
Beaker

Ether
Frozen water
Wood

A beaker, about one-third full of ether, is stood in a small pool of water on a

flat piece of wood.
Air is bubbled through the ether for some time.
It is observed that the pool of water begins to freeze.

Explanation:
Bubbling causes rapid evaporation of the ether and vapour is quickly carried away as the
bubbles rise to the surface and burst. The rate of evaporation increases.

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The sudden change from liquid to the vapour requires latent heat of vaporisation which
comes from the internal energy of the liquid itself. This causes the liquid to cool well
below 00 C. At the same time heat is being conducted from the thin pool of water
underneath and water also cools to 00 C. The water at 00 C, begins to lose latent heat of
fusion and finally freezes.
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
(i) Temperature
Whenever the temperature of a liquid is raised more molecules are given enough
energy to escape to the vapour phase. So, the rate of evaporation increases with rise
in temperature.
(ii) Exposed Surface Area
The greater the surface area of the liquid the higher is the rate of evaporation, since
more molecules are exposed to the atmosphere.
(iii) Current of Air over the Liquid Surface (wind or drought)
When an air current blows over the liquid, the liquid molecule in the gaseous state
are carried away. This creates more space for more molecules to leave the liquid
easily, increasing the rate of evaporation. This why wet clothes dry faster on a
windy day.
(iv) Nature of the liquid.
The boiling point of a liquid depends upon the nature of the liquid, thus ether having
a low boiling point will evaporate more easily than the same quantity of water
under similar conditions.
(v) Pressure.
If the pressure acting on the surface of the liquid is decreased, more and more
molecules can escape from its surface. Therefore, a decrease in pressure increases
the rate of evaporation of a liquid. This is why in a vacuum the evaporation is
extremely rapid.
Therefore, a vapour can be condensed by applying pressure and a liquid can be
vaporized by reducing the pressure on it.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION

SIMILARITIES
Both are processes where a liquid changes to vapour.
For both latent heat of vaporisation is required.

DIFFERENCES
BOILING EVAPORATION
1.Takes place throughout the liquid -Takes place only on the surface of the
liquid
2. Takes place at a fixed temperature for a -Takes place at any temperature
given liquid.
3.Doesn’t cause cooling -Cause cooling for the liquid

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 4. Evaporation is a slow and calm -Boiling is a rapid and a noisy process.
process.

APPLICATIONS OF COOLING EFFECT CAUSED BY EVAPORATION

1. Water kept in earthen pitchers (clay and mud pots) is colder than the one in a metal
container.
The earthen pot is porous and water seeps through the pores and escapes.
The required latent heat of vaporisation is being removed from the internal energy
of water inside the pot. This causes the water to cool well below room temperature.
If a wet cloth is wrapped around the pot, the rate of evaporation can be speeded up
and more cooling effect produced.
2. If methylated spirit is sprayed on the hand, the hand feels cold. The spirit has a low
boiling point and can change from liquid to vapour quite easily at room
temperature. To change from liquid to vapour, the required latent heat of
vaporisation is removed from the body. The hand loses heat and cools.
Note: Such liquids are called volatile liquids.
3. Human beings sweat or perspire on a hot day or after severe exercise. Dogs pant, i.e.
hung out their tongue, since their bodies are not porous. The sweating effect or
panting is to keep the body cool.
4. When we perspire in a hot weather, we prefer to sit below and electric fan. Cooling
effect is produced due to rapid evaporation.
5. In hot weather, the sprinkling of roads with water not only lays down dust particles
from the road, bur also produces a cooling effect by evaporation.
6. If we expose ourselves to wind with wet clothes on a rainy day, we feel intense cold
due to evaporation of water.
7. The refrigerator
Lagging
Liquid

Freezer

Capillary tube
Vapour

Cooling fins
Condenser

Compressor

The compressor circulates the refrigerant through the tubes. It sucks the fluid from the
freezer and this lowers the pressure there, causing the fluid to evaporate. The evaporating
fluid takes up heat from the surroundings, thus causing cooling.
At the same time the compressor pumps the fluid into the condenser. The capillary tube
ahead constrains the fluid flow, causing pressure to build up in the condenser. This causes
the fluid to condense there, giving up its latent heat to the surroundings.
S.3 HEAT NOTES 2019
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The cooling fins help to take away the heat given up by the condensing fluid.
The cycle continues, each time heat being extracted from the freezer and being given up in
the condenser. Between the freezer and the compressor, the fluid is in vapour form while
between the condenser and freezer it is in liquid form.

The Charcoal Refrigerator

Insulating cover

Metallic Wire mesh

tank

Wetted charcoal

It consists of a metallic tank surrounded by wetted charcoal. The charcoal is kept in place
by a wire mesh that surrounds the tank and an insulator covers the top of the tank.
Action:
Charcoal is porous and thus presents a lot of its surface to the surroundings. As water
evaporates from the charcoal, it absorbs latent heat of vaporization from the metallic tank.
So, heat flows from the inside of the tank to the outside.
The porosity of the charcoal quickens the evaporation. The performance of this
refrigerator may be improved if it is placed in a draught.

SUBTOPIC: VAPOURS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
• Define saturated and unsaturated vapours, and SVP.
• Define boiling point.
• Explain effect of pressure on boiling point.
• Investigate boiling under reduced pressure.
• Explain the working of a pressure cooker.
• Explain the variation of boiling point with altitude.

MECHANISM OF EVAPORATION
A vapour is a substance, in gaseous state, that can be liquefied by compression.
Energetic molecules of a liquid do escape from the surface and join the gaseous state. On
average the less energetic molecules remain behind. So the liquid cools as it evaporates –
(Cooling by evaporation)

VAPOUR PRESSURE AND SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE.

VAPOUR PRESSURE
Suppose water is poured in a sauce pan and a sauce pan is covered with a tray. The water
is then heated, until it boils. The space above begins to fill with vapour. The vapour
molecules move about in all directions and exert pressure when they hit the walls of the

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sauce pan and they also strike the surface of the liquid and may re-enter. At this point a
state dynamic equilibrium is said be reached.

A state of dynamic equilibrium is when the rate at which molecules leave the surface of
the liquid is equal to the rate at which they re-enter the liquid.

“Dynamic” means molecules are in continuous motion.

Definition
Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by vapour molecules due to their constant
motion.

Under these condition, the space above the liquid is said to saturated with vapour the
pressure exerted is called saturated vapour pressure. (s.v.p).
For a given temperature, s.v.p is always the same.

Definition
Saturated vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapour which is in a state of
dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid is called.

Before equilibrium is reached, the pressure is said to be unsaturated.

In case of unsaturated vapour, the pressure is referred to as unsaturated vapour

pressure.

Unsaturated vapour is the vapour formed when molecules move about in a random
motion and some of the return to the liquid after collision.

A saturated vapour is one which is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.

Saturated vapour

Liquid

(i) Unsaturated vapour (ii) Saturated vapour

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SATURATED VAPOUR
1. Pressure of a saturated vapour is independent of volume.
When a saturated vapour is compressed, some vapour instead condenses to liquid
reducing the vapour volume but leaving the vapour pressure the same. i.e the
vapour portion decreases as that of the liquid increases. The other way round
happens when a saturated vapour is expanded, still the pressure remaining the
same.

2. Pressure of a saturated vapour increases with rise in temperature.

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Humidity in the Atmosphere
This is the amount of water vapour actually present in the air.
When the air is saturated with water, its humidity is 100%.

The dew point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated when cooled.

Relative humidity is the ratio of saturated vapour pressure of water if the air were at the
dew point to the saturated vapour pressure of water at the present air temperature.

DEPENDENCE OF BOILING POINT ON EXTERNAL PRESSURE

(Effect of reduced pressure on boiling point of water)
A liquid boils at a temperature at which its saturated vapour pressure equals the external
pressure. Since atmospheric pressure is lower at higher altitudes, it follows that the
boiling point of a liquid is lower at higher altitudes. Raising the external pressure raises
the boiling point of a liquid.

AN EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE REDUCTION IN PRESSURE LOWERS BOILING.

A round bottomed flask is half filled with water. The water is boiled until steam drives the
air out of the flask.
The gas is turned off, the glass is fitted with a rubber stopper and a thermometer. The
flask is clamped upside down.
When boiling has stopped, cold water is poured over the flask.

Observation.
The water boils again at a lower temperature.

Cold water
Air inside flask is driven away

Boiling water
Round-bottomed flask half-filled with
water

Explanation: Heat
When the flask is cooled by water from the tap, the water vapour inside condenses leaving
a partial vacuum above the water thus lowering the pressure inside. So water boils well
below its boiling point.

Conclusion
Reduced pressure lowers the boiling point of water. Similarly, increased pressure raises
the boiling point of water.

AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF INCREASE OF PRESSURE ON BOILING

POINT OF WATER.

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A round bottomed flask is filled with three quarters of water.
The round bottomed flask is closed with a two holed rubber cork is insert.
One hole is fitted with a thermometer and the other with a glass tube with a clip.
Water is heated in a round bottomed flask until it starts boiling under standard
atmospheric pressure. The cliff is opened.
It is observed that the water boils at 1000 C.
The steam is trapped inside by the closing the cliff.
It is observed that there is an increase the reading of thermometer.
This shows that the boiling point increases with increase in pressure.
(For the video visit http://youtube.com/watch?v=AFARWpoaSJA)

Applications of boiling point changes.

1. The Pressure Cooker Safety valve Variable loading pin valve

Rubber seal

Temperatures above 100oC according to valve setting

Aluminium container

This device works on the principle that at the boiling point of a liquid is raised when
pressure is increased.
It is an aluminum container with a lid having a rubber sealing ring called a gasket.
The ring makes the gas cooker air tight.
There is much space left empty at the top so that steam pressure can build up in that
space to twice the atmospheric pressure.
A pin valve is used is used to release some steam in order to maintain the required
pressure and avoid an explosion when there is to much pressure inside the cooker.
Due to high pressure water boils at about 2000 C which makes food cook faster.
Food cooked in a pressure cooker with water boiling at a higher temperature than
1000 C takes less time to be ready.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWV3FbgPPXo

2. Cooking on mountains

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 Water boils at lower temperatures up a mountain e.g. at the top of Mt. Evarest which
is 8850m above sea level, water boils at 730 C. It is therefore not possible to cook
food properly on high mountains, or even tea.
Mountains climbers therefore use pressure cookers to overcome this problem.

VARIATION OF BOILING WITH ALTITUDE

Page 297.
Increase in pressure leads to increase in the boiling point of a liquid, similarly, a decrease
in pressure leads to a decrease in boiling point.
At sea level atmospheric pressure is high, water boils at 1000 C. At a higher altitude air is
less dense and exerts less pressure which reduces the boiling point.
It is advisable to use a pressure cooker while cooking in areas of higher altitude, otherwise
the food is not properly cooked.

Conclusion
Boiling takes place faster at higher altitude than at sea level
Cooking takes a longer time

(DO NOT COPY THIS ONE)

How about that egg we want to cook on top of a high mountain, say at 10,000 feet?
We now know that the water will boil at a lower temperature on top of the mountain at lets
say, 185 degrees Fahrenheit. To hard-boil an egg at sea level takes say, five minutes at 212
degrees Fahrenheit.
Now, there is a very good law in chemistry that states "You cannot get something for nothing"
(the left-hand value of an equation must equal the right-hand value). Time multiplied by
temperature equals a hardboiled egg. That is to say, 212 times 5 equals a hardboiled egg.
If the temperature of the boiling water on the mountaintop is 185 degrees Fahrenheit, then
the time taken to cook the egg will have to INCREASE to get our hardboiled egg. Our equation
to equal a hardboiled egg cannot change. (185 times extended time equals hardboiled egg.) It
is no different to cooking a piece of steak or cooking the potatoes. You can cook at a low
temperature for a long time, or a high temperature for a short time.
It is time and temperature that does the cooking. It has nothing to do with whether the water
is boiling. That is only a physical phenomenon that you can see. You have to measure for
temperature and time, as these are the two factors that determine when the egg is hardboiled.
THE END.

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