ELECTRICITY

Electric current: the flow of electric charge is called electric current.

Electric current is carried by electrons through a conductor.Sometimes, these electrons are tightly held,
and other times they are loosely held. When electrons are loosely held by the nucleus, they are able to
travel freely within the limits of the body. Electrons are negatively charged particles hence when they
move, a number of charges moves, and we call this movement of electrons as electric current.

 By convention, electric current flows in the opposite direction to the movement of electrons.

Expression of electric current:

Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in a unit time
i.e rate of flow of electric charges. If a net electric charge (Q) flows through a cross-section of a
conductor in time t, then,
a net electric charge (Q) flows through a cross-section of a conductor in time t, then, a net electric charge (Q)
flows through a cross-section of a conductor in time t, then,

Electric current (l) = netcharge(Q)/time(t)

Where I is electric current, Q is a net charge and t is a time in second.

S.I. unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).

One coulomb is nearly equal to 6 × 10¹⁸ electrons. S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A). Ampere is the flow
of electric charge through a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. This means, if 1 coulomb of electric
charge flows through a cross section for 1 second, it would be equal to 1 ampere.

Therefore, 1A = 1C/1s

• Ammeter: An apparatus to measure electric current in a circuit

•Drift velocity: Average velocity attained by charged particles in a material due to an electric field.
• Charge : electric charge is a physical property of a matter which causes it to experience a force when placed in
an electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges postive and negative.

• Unlike charges attract each other and like charges repel each other.

• Conductors: those substances through which electricity can flow are called conductors.

Or

substances which offers comparatively less opposition to the flow of current are known as a conductors. Eg iron,
steel ,copper.
•Insulators:substances through which electricity cannot flow are called insulators.

Or

Substances which offer larger opposition to the flow of electric current are called insulators. Eg dry wood, plastic,
glass.
• Electric circuit: the closed path or loop which an electric current takes is called electric circuit. It is made up
of wires and powered by a source like electric circuit is complete when there is at least one closed loop from +ve
to -ve end .

•Circuit diagram: representation of electric circuit through symbols is called circuit diagram.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

Electric Potential: The amount of electric potential energy at a point is called electric potential.

The electric potential at a point is defined as work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that
point.

Potential Difference: The difference in the amount of electric potential energy between two points in an electric
circuit is called electric potential difference
Electric potential difference is known as voltage, which is equal to the amount of work done to move the unit
charge between two points against static electric field.

Therefore, Voltage = Workdone/Charge

Voltage or electric potential difference is denoted by V’. Therefore, V = W/Q

Where, W = Work done and Q = Charge

S.I. unit of electric potential difference is volt and denoted by ‘V’ This is named in honour of Italian Physicist
Alessandro Volta.

Since joule is the unit of work and Coulomb is the unit of charge, 1 volt of electric potential difference is equal
to the 1 joule of work to be done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to another in an electric circuit.
Therefore

1V = 1Joule/1Coulomb = 1J/1C

1V = 1JC-1
Voltmeter: An apparatus to measure the potential difference or electric potential difference between two points in
an electric circuit.

Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric current and potential difference. It states “that
the potential difference between two points is directly proportional to the electric current, at a constant
temperature”.

Or
The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the applied potential difference between the
two ends of the conductor.

This means the potential difference varies as the current varies in a conductor. Mathematically, this current-voltage
relationship is written as,
V∝ I

V = RI

I = V/R

R = V/I ( ratio of potential difference and the current reamins constant in a conductor).

In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance.

Conditions for ohm’s law:

Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the other physical factors remain constant. In certain
components, increasing the current raises the temperature. An example of this is the filament of a light bulb, in
which the temperature rises as the current is increased. In this case, Ohm’s law cannot be applied. The lightbulb
filament violates Ohm’s Law.
• ohmic conductors : An ohmic conductor is defined as one which obeys ohm’s law.eg silver, copper.
•non ohmic conductors: conductors do not follow Ohms law e.g bulb filament

• ohms law is not a universal law .

Resistance and resistivity:

Resistance: resistance is the property of a conductor to resist o hinder the flow of charges through it. It’s is the
measure of opposition offered to the flow of electric current in a circuit.

Mathematically it is written as , R= V/I (ohm’s law)

S.I. unit of resistance is ohm denoted by Greek letter Ω.

1 ohm (Ω) of resistance (R) is equal to the flow 1A of current through a conductor between two points having a
potential difference equal to 1V.

This means; 1Ω = 1V/1A

According to ohm’s law electric current through a resistor is inversely proportional to resistance. This means
electric current will decrease with an increase in resistance and vice versa.
Variable Resistance: The component of an electric circuit which is used to regulate the current, without changing
the voltage from the source, is called variable resistance.in an electric circuit a device used to change the resistance
is called rheostat.

Cause of Resistance in a Conductor: Flow of electrons in a conductor is electric current. The positive particles
of conductor create hindrance to flow of electrons, because of attraction between them, this hindrance is the cause
of resistance in the flow of electricity.

Factors on Which Resistance of a Conductor Depends:

Resistance in a conductor depends on natureamd temperature of materai, length and area of cross section of the
conductor.

(I,) Nature of Material: Some materials create least hindrance and hence, are called good conductors. Silver is the
best conductor of electricity. While some other materials create more hindrance in the flow of electric current, i.e.
flow of electrons through them. Such materials are called bad conductors. Bad conductor are also known as
insulators. Hard plastic is the one of the best insulators of electricity.

(ii)Length : Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the length of the conductor. This means, resistance increases
with increase in length of the conductor.

(R) ∝ length of conductor (L)

Or, R ∝ l …(i)

(ii) area of cross section: Resistance R is inversely proportional to the area of cross section (A) of the
conductor. This means R will decrease with an increase in the area of conductor and vice versa.
Thus, resistance (R) ∝ 1/Area of cross section of conductor (A)
Or, R ∝ L/A ….(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii)
R ∝ l/A
R = ρ L/A
Where, ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant. It is called the electrical resistivity of the material of
conductor.
From equation (iii) RA = ρl
⇒ ρ = RA/L ..(iv)

S.I unit of resistivity (ρ) = Ω×m²/m = Ωm

Thus, S.I. unit of resistivity (ρ) is Ωm (ohm metre).

Resistivity also known as specific resistance is defined
The electrical resistance offered by a substance of unit length and unit cross-sectional area is called
resistivity. Or
the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1m when current flows perpendicular to its
opposite faces.Resistivity depends on the nature and temperature of the conductor’s material.

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF OHMS LAW

1.Set up the circuit as illustrated above to verify Ohm’s law experimentally.

 2.Connect the resistance in parallel with the voltmeter (an instrument to measure potential in a
circuit) and connect the ammeter (an instrument to measure current in a circuit) in series in the
circuit.
3.Initially, the key K is closed, and the rheostat (a device used to control current by varying
resistance) is adjusted to get the minimum reading in ammeter A and voltmeter V.
4.The current in the circuit is increased gradually by moving the sliding terminal of the rheostat.
During the process, the current flowing in the circuit and the corresponding value of potential
difference across the resistance wire R are recorded.
5.Similarly, different values of current and voltage are obtained.
6.Plot a graph between the values of current and voltage. The graph obtained will be a straight
line.
7.This shows that current and potential are directly proportional to each other. Thus, it verifies
Ohm’s law.

Combination Of Resistors
Electricity always flows from higher potential to lower potential in a circuit. A regular circuit contains conductors,
resistors, a switch to turn on and off the circuit, and a power source. All of these different components can be
connected in multiple ways to produce a complicated network.Therefore, solving resistors in series and parallel
is important. A resistor is an electrical component that provides resistance or limits the flow of current in the
circuit.For example, we can consider a tube light used in our household as a resistor. Therefore, solving resistors
in series and parallel is essential.Normally, we have a combination of resistors used in all circuits. We can either
have resistors in series or resistors in parallel.

Series Combination of Resistors:

We say that resistors are connected in series when the resistors are connected one after the other. The current
flows through them one after the other, and Voltage will keep dropping from one resistor to another.
Let, three resistors R1, R2, and R3 get connected in series.

Potential difference across A and B = V

Potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 = V1, V2 and V3

Current flowing through the combination = I

We, know that

V= V1 + V2 + V3 …. (i)

According to Ohm’s Law :

V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 ….. (ii)

Let, total resistance = Rs

Then, V = IRs …(iii)

From equations (i) and (ii) and (iii)

IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
When the resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor is the same and is equal to
the total current.

THINGS TO REMEMBER IN SERIES CONNECTION:

1.When a number of resistances are connected in series, the equivalent or resultant resistance is equal to the sum
of individual resistances and resultant resistance is greater than any individual resistance.

2.If n resistances each of value R are connected in series, the equivalent resistance Re is given by:
Re = R + R + R .......... n times

Re = nR

Re =Number of resistors × resistance of each resistor

3.Equal current flows through each resistance and it is also equal to the total current in the circuit. This is because
there is no other path along which the current can flow.

4.The potential difference across the ends of the combination is distributed across the ends of each of the
resistances. The potential difference across any one of the resistances is directly proportional to its resistance.
5.The equivalent resistance when used in place of the combination of resistances produces the same current with
the same potential difference applied across its ends.

6.When two or more resistances are joined in series, the result is the same as increasing the length of the conductor.
In both cases the resultant resistance is higher.

7.in a series combination, the equivalent resistance is greater than the greatest resistance in the combination.

RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL:

A number of resistors are said to be in a parallel connection if one end of each resistance is connected to one point
and the other is connected to another point. The potential difference across each resistor is the same and is equal
to the applied potential difference between the two points.

R1, R2, R3 – Three resistances in parallel connection.

V – Potential difference across A and B.
I – Total current flowing between A and B.

I¹,I2, I3 – Current flowing through R1, R2, R3 respectively.

I = I1 + I2 + I3 ... (i) [In parallel connection, the current gets divided among the resistances]
The potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 is same, therefore, according to Ohm’s law:

Let Re be the equivalent resistance. Thus

Combination of Resistors ... (iii)

From equation (i), (ii) and (iii) we get

THINGS TO REMEMBER IN PARALLEL CONNECTION:

1.When a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent or resultant resistance
is equal to the sum of reciprocals of the individual resistances and is always smaller than the individual resistances.
This is because there are a number of paths for the flow of electrons.
If there are n resistances connected in parallel and each resistance has a value of R
2.The potential difference across each resistance is the same and is equal to the total potential difference across
the combination.

3.The total current divides itself and different current flows through each resistor. The maximum current flows
through the resistor having minimum resistance and vice versa.

4.If an equivalent resistance Re is connected in place of combination, it produces the same current for the same
potential difference applied across its ends.

5.In a parallel combination, the equivalent resistance is lesser than the least of all the resistances.
6.If two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel then

7.If there are n resistors each of resistance R – Let RS be the resultant resistance of series combination and Rp be
the resultant resistance of parallel combination.

Then, RS = nR
Rp = R/n.

ELECTRIC POWER:
Power is commonly defined as the rate at which the work is done. When this is done with respect to time and in
an electrical circuit, it is known as electric power. Alternately, electric power is defined as the rate at which electric
energy is transferred across an electrical circuit per unit time. Electric power is versatile – it can be produced in
generators in our houses and can be supplied to electric batteries used in devices.

Power = Workdone/ time

Or P = W/t _1
The above expression is used mostly for mechanical power. For electric power, another equation is used, when
we calculate work through the amount of charge and the potential difference through which the charge is moving.

W = qV . _2

Where q = total charge used and V = voltage

Substitute (2) in (1)

P = qV/t. _3
We know that current is the charge per second that passes through the circuit at any given point in time.

q = It _4

Substitute (4) in (3), we get

P= IV

Here, P is the power, V or voltage is the potential difference in the circuit, and I is the electric current.

Power can also be written as

V= IR. (ohm’s law)

Thus, P=IR×RI

P=I²R

Also I=V/R

P= V²/R

Where V is the voltage, R is the resistance, and I is the electric current

Units of Electric Power:

The S-I unit of electri power is JS–¹ called as warr power of an electric device is said to be 1 watt if a current of
1A flows through it when a potential difference of 1V is applied. Watt is small unit of power so we use bigger
units of power as KW and MW where 1kw = 10³w and 1Mw = 10⁶w.
Commercial unit of electric power is kilowatt hour (kWh), 1kwh= 3.6×10⁶ joules

Power rating Power rating is the maximum amount of power that an equipment, appliance, or energy storage
technology can handle or generate under ideal conditions.

ELECTRIC ENERGY:

The total Work done by a current in an electric circuit is called electric energy.

It can also be defined as the work done by source of electricity to maintain electric current in a circuit.
E= Pxt.... (1)

P=VI
 E=VIt.......(2)

Also, P= I²R
Substitute the value of Pin equation (1) , we get

E=I²Rt.....(3)

Also P=V²/R

Substitute the value of P in equation (1), we get ,

E= V²t/R

SI unit of electric energy is joule (J) . The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh). It is also
called BOTI or UNIT in brief.

The electric energy consumed, when an electric appliance of power 1KW works for 1 hour , is called KWh.

Heating effect of current: Whenever current flows through a conductor, it becomes hot after some time. This
means that electric energy is converted into heat energy. The heat produced due to the flow of electric current is
called as heating effect of current. It was first observed by Thomas joule so it is also called joule's heating
effect. Electric bulb, electric iron, heater, gyser etc are the appliances based on this effect.

Cause of heating:- When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, the free electrons begin to drift
from lower potential to higher potential (-Ve terminal to +Ve terminal). During their motion they experience a
resistance on account of their collisions with other electrons as well as with kernels (Nucleolus and inner electrons
of atoms). As a result of this, some work is done to overcome this resistance. This work done is converted into
heat.
Consider a conductor AB of resistance R, let V he the potential difference applied across its ends such that a
current 1 flows through it for a time t.
Therefore Total charge flowing from A to B in time t is q = h_______{1}

(1) By definition of potential difference work done in carrying unit +ve charge from A to B = V therefore total
work done in carrying charge q from A to B = qv

W = qv______________(2)
Substituting (1) in (2) we have.

W = VIt = 𝐼 2 Rt Joules
This work done is called electric work done. If this appears as heat, then amount of heat produced (H) is given
by

H = W = 𝐼2 Rt Joules
 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑇
= Cal ______________ (3
4.18

This equation (3) is a statement of Joule's law of heating. The law implies that the heat produced in a resistor
is

i. directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance

ii. directly proportional to resistance for a given current It means if we use a wire made of metal having
more resistance (like nichrome wire), it will produce more heat But if we use wire made of metal
having less resistance (like copper), it will produce less heat
iii. directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor It means if we switch
on an electric gadget for more time, it will get heated up more But if we use an electric gadget for less
time (switch it off after use),it will get less heated

Different formulas for Heat

We know that, Heat = Electrical power x time Hence, the three formulae become

1. H = (VI)t

2. H = (𝐼 2 𝑅)𝑇

3. H = (𝑉 2 𝑅)𝑇

It means if we double the current, the heat becomes 4 times

if we half the current, the heat becomes 1/4 times Hence, more the current, more the heat. Less the current,
less heat produced.

Practical applications of Heating effect of current:- The heating effect of current has many useful
practical applications such as:
(i) An electric iron, electric geyser, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle etc. are some of the familiar
devices based on joule heating or heating effect of current.

(ii) An electric bulb is used to provide light by heating its filament.

(iii) An electric fuse used as a safety device in electric circuits is another important application of joule heating
(heating effect of current).