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STAT-408 (1) (2)

The document provides an overview of logic and reasoning, defining logic as the framework for reasoning and emphasizing the importance of logical reasoning in independent thinking and problem-solving. It discusses three types of reasoning: inductive, deductive, and abductive, along with examples and the concept of propositions and arguments. The document also explains valid and invalid arguments, highlighting the significance of logical form in determining the validity of conclusions.

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ZAIN RAJPOOT
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25 views21 pages

STAT-408 (1) (2)

The document provides an overview of logic and reasoning, defining logic as the framework for reasoning and emphasizing the importance of logical reasoning in independent thinking and problem-solving. It discusses three types of reasoning: inductive, deductive, and abductive, along with examples and the concept of propositions and arguments. The document also explains valid and invalid arguments, highlighting the significance of logical form in determining the validity of conclusions.

Uploaded by

ZAIN RAJPOOT
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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STAT-408

Ms. Kiran Iftikhar

Department of
mathematics and statistcs
LOGIC
LOGIC IS THE SCIENCE AND ART OF
DIRECTING MIND IN THE PROCESS OF
REASONING AND PROCESS TO ENABLE IT
FOR ATTAINING CLEARNESS,
CONSISTENCY AND VALIDITY FOR THOSE
PROCESS.

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Reasoning builds on the rules of logic
and is defined as the action of thinking
about something in a logical, sensible
way. It can be likened to solving a puzzle,
as it involves piecing together
information, observations, and
experiences to make an inference or
draw a conclusion.
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While
logic is an external framework of
predetermined rules,
reasoning is an internal process that can
be influenced by knowledge and beliefs.
Reaching a conclusion involves individual
interpretation of evidence through the
lens of one’s own experience.

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Importance of Logical Reasoning:
֍ Logical Reasoning enables to think
independently, they begin to understand options
to reach a solution.

֍ It encourages to think outside the box and to


find creative solutions to problems they face. It
enables them to better explore new ideas and
gives them a sense of control over the events in
their lives.
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TYPES OF REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
ABDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning is the making of generalizations based on
observed examples.

Example: The last four times I have driven downtown at 6pm there has
been traffic. My conclusion is that there is always traffic downtown
around 6pm.

we can use inductive reasoning and make a generalization and be


incorrect. Therefore we call generalizations made from using inductive
reasoning hypotheses, because there is no guarantee that they are true
or false. If we believe that a hypothesis is true and we want to show it,
then we must prove that it holds for every possible case. If we believe
that a hypothesis is false, then we can prove it by providing a
counterexample. A counterexample is a case where the hypothesis does
not hold.

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Counterexamples
Example: The sum of two three-digit numbers is a four-digit number.

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Example: Consider the following hypothesis, All prime
numbers are odd.

Identify a counterexample to show that it is false. *Note*


A prime number is a number that has exactly two factors:
1 and the number itself.

Solution: To solve this problem we will need to know the


set of primes. The primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,
23, . . . We can see right away that there is a prime that
is not odd and it is 2. This gives a counterexample to the
general statement and shows that the hypothesis is not in
general true.
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Deductive Reasoning is the process of applying a given
generalization (or rule) to make conclusions about
specific examples.

•All dogs have ears; golden retrievers are dogs,


therefore they have ears.
•All racing cars must go over 80MPH; the Dodge
Charger is a racing car, therefore it can go over 80MPH.
•Christmas is always Dec. 25th; today is Dec. 25th,
therefore it’s Christmas.
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Abductive reasoning refers to the thought process
involved in a judgment about what explanation
underlies a group of facts or observations. It can
also be called inference to the best explanation
because the goal of abductive reasoning is to
ascertain which of the explanations under
consideration is the best or most plausible.

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An example of abductive reasoning would be if someone
heard birdsong outside their window and concluded that
a bird was probably nearby. There are other potential
explanations, such as the possibility that a person is
playing audio of birdsong from a speaker, but the
explanation that there is a bird outside seems more
reasonable, and is more likely to be true in most
situations. The process of determining which of these
potential explanations makes more sense is abductive
reasoning.
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Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence
that is either true (denoted either T or
1) or false (denoted either F or 0).

Notation: Variables are used to


represent propositions. The most
common variables used are p, q, and r.

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Booles basic idea was that if simple
propositions could be represented by
precise symbols, the relation between
the propositions could be read as
precisely as an algebraic equation.
Boole developed an algebra of logic in
which certain types of reasoning were
reduced to manipulations of symbols.
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Examples
“Drilling for oil caused dinosaurs to become extinct” is a proposition.

“Look out!” is not a proposition.

“How far is it to the next town?” is not a proposition.

“x+2 = 2x” is not a proposition.

“x+2 = 2x” when x =-2 is a proposition.


Recall a proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or
false. Here are some further examples of propositions:

 All cows are brown.


 The Earth is further from the sun than Venus.
 There is life on Mars.
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Here are some sentences that are not propositions.

“Do you want to go to the movies?” Since a question is not a


declarative sentence, it fails to be a proposition.

“Clean up your room”. Likewise, an imperative is not a declarative


sentence; hence, fails to be a proposition.

“2x = 2 + x”. This is a declarative sentence, but unless x is assigned


a value or is otherwise prescribed, the sentence neither true nor
false, hence, not a proposition.

Each proposition can be assigned one of two truth values. We use T


or 1 for true and use F or 0 for false.
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ARGUMENT
An argument(form) is a sequence of statements (forms). All
statements (forms) in an argument (form) except for the final
one, are called premises (or assumptions, or hypothesis). The
final statement (form) is called the conclusion. The symbol
⸫ which is read “therefore” is normally placed just before
the conclusion.

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Valid Arguments
An argument form is valid if whenever true statements are
substituted in for the statement variables the conclusions is
always true. To say an argument is invalid means that it is not
valid.
The main point regarding a valid argument is that it follows
from the logical form itself and has nothing to do with the
content. When a conclusion is reached using a valid argument,
we say the conclusion is inferred or deduced from the
premises. Before we consider examples, we shall briefly
examine how one can tell if a given argument form is valid or
invalid.
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Example:

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Invalid Arguments
An invalid (i.e. flawed) argument is one whose conclusion
is not proven by its premises. That is, even if all the
premises are true, the conclusion could still be false. Some
sort of jump in reasoning has taken place, and it’s your job
to figure out where the argument went wrong.
Examples:
 Cutting people is a crime. Surgeons cut people.
Therefore, surgeons are criminals.
 All lawyers always tell the truth. Jack is a lawyer.
Therefore, Jack always tells the truth- this assumes
that all Lawyers always tell the truth, and so assumes
the conclusion.
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