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 Advanced
Engineering Mathematics
Fourth Edition
Gujarat Technological University 2018
 About the Authors

Ravish R Singh is presently Academic Advisor at Thakur Educational

Trust, Mumbai. He obtained a BE degree from University of Mumbai
in 1991, an MTech degree from IIT Bombay in 2001, and a PhD
degree from Faculty of Technology, University of Mumbai, in 2013.
He has published several books with McGraw Hill Education (India)
on varied subjects like Engineering Mathematics, Applied
Mathematics, Electrical Networks, Network Analysis and Synthesis,
Basic, Electrical Engineering, Basic Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, etc., for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula of some universities
like Gujarat Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand Technical University,
and Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University. Dr Singh is a member of IEEE, ISTE,
and IETE, and has published research papers in national and international journals. His
fields of interest include Circuits, Signals and Systems, and Engineering Mathematics.

Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

Humanities and Sciences, at Thakur College of Engineering and
Technology, Mumbai. She obtained her MSc (Mathematics) degree
from H N B Garhwal University in 1992, and a PhD degree from
Faculty of Science, PAHER University, Udaipur, Rajasthan in 2017.
She has published several books with McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited on Engineering Mathematics and Applied Mathematics
for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula of some universities like Gujarat
Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand Technical University, and
Uttar Pradesh Technical University. Dr. Bhatt has twenty six years of teaching
experience at various levels in engineering colleges and her fields of interest include
Integral Calculus, Complex Analysis, and Operation Research. She is a member of
ISTE.
 Advanced
Engineering Mathematics
Fourth Edition
Gujarat Technological University 2018

Ravish R Singh
Academic Advisor
Thakur Educational Trust
Mumbai, Maharashtra

Mukul Bhatt
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities and Sciences
Thakur College of Engineering and Technology
Mumbai, Maharashtra

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Chennai

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 McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
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Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 4e, GTU–2018
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 Dedicated
to
Aman and Aditri
Ravish R Singh

Soumya and Siddharth

Mukul Bhatt
 Contents
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xv
1. Introduction to Some Special Functions 1.1–1.10
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Gamma Function 1.2
1.3 Beta Function 1.2
1.4 Bessel Function 1.3
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function 1.3
1.6 Heaviside’s Unit Step Function 1.4
1.7 Pulse of Unit Height and Duration Function 1.5
1.8 Sinusoidal Pulse Function 1.5
1.9 Rectangle Function 1.5
1.10 Gate Function 1.6
1.11 Dirac’s Delta Function 1.6
1.12 Signum Function 1.7
1.13 Sawtooth Wave Function 1.7
1.14 Triangular Wave Function 1.7
1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.7
1.16 Full-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.8
1.17 Square-Wave Function 1.8
Multiple Choice Questions 1.8
2. Fourier Series and Fourier Integral 2.1–2.136
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Periodic Functions 2.1
2.3 Fourier Series 2.2
2.4 Trigonometric Fourier Series 2.2
2.5 Fourier Series of Functions of Any Period 2.3
2.6 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions 2.62
2.7 Half-Range Fourier Series 2.89
2.8 Fourier Integral 2.116
Points to Remember 2.130
Multiple Choice Questions 2.133
viii Contents

3. Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications 3.1–3.266

3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.2 Differential Equations 3.2
3.3 Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 3.5
3.4 Applications of First-Order Differential Equations 3.92
3.5 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order with
Constant Coefficients 3.103
3.6 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations: Method of
Reduction of Order 3.111
3.7 Nonhomogeneous Linear Differential Equations of
Higher Order with Constant Coefficients 3.118
3.8 Method of Variation of Parameters 3.180
3.9 Cauchy’s Linear Equations 3.206
3.10 Legendre’s Linear Equations 3.226
3.11 Method of Undetermined Coefficients 3.234
3.12 Applications of Higher Order Linear Differential Equations 3.247
Points to Remember 3.260
Multiple Choice Questions 3.263
4. Series Solution of Differential Equations 4.1–4.63
4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Power-Series Method 4.1
4.3 Series Solution about an Ordinary Point 4.6
4.4 Frobenius Method 4.25
Points to Remember 4.62
Multiple Choice Questions 4.63
5. Laplace Transforms and Applications 5.1–5.223
5.1 Introduction 5.1
5.2 Laplace Transform 5.2
5.3 Laplace Transform of Elementary Functions 5.2
5.4 Basic Properties of Laplace Transform 5.13
5.5 Differentiation of Laplace Transforms (Multiplication by t) 5.35
5.6 Integration of Laplace Transforms (Division by t) 5.52
5.7 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives 5.63
5.8 Laplace Transforms of Integrals 5.66
5.9 Evaluation of Integrals using Laplace Transform 5.76
5.10 Unit Step Function 5.83
5.11 Dirac’s Delta Function 5.90
5.12 Laplace Transforms of Periodic Functions 5.94
5.13 Inverse Laplace Transform 5.102
5.14 Convolution Theorem 5.173
5.15 Solution of Linear Ordinary Differential Equations 5.194
Points to Remember 5.219
Multiple Choice Questions 5.222
 Contents ix

6. Partial Differential Equations and Applications 6.1–6.143

6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Partial Differential Equations 6.2
6.3 Formation of Partial Differential Equations 6.2
6.4 Solution of Partial Differential Equations 6.15
6.5 Linear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 6.19
6.6 Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 6.35
6.7 Charpit’s Method 6.53
6.8 Homogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with
Constant Coefficients 6.59
6.9 Nonhomogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with
Constant Coefficients 6.74
6.10 Classification of Second Order Linear Partial Differential
Equations 6.77
6.11 Applications of Partial Differential Equations 6.78
6.12 Method of Separation of Variables 6.78
6.13 One-Dimensional Wave Equation 6.88
6.14 D’ Alembert’s Solution of the Wave Equation 6.104
6.15 One-Dimensional Heat-Flow Equation 6.106
6.16 Two-Dimensional Heat-Flow Equation 6.126
Points to Remember 6.138
Multiple Choice Questions 6.140

Index I.1–I.3
 Preface
Mathematics is a key area of study in any engineering course. A sound knowledge
of this subject will help engineering students develop analytical skills, and thus
enable them to solve numerical problems encountered in real life, as well as apply
mathematical principles to physical problems, particularly in the field of engineering.

Users
This book is designed for the 2nd year GTU engineering students pursuing the
course Advanced Engineering Mathematics, SUBJECT CODE: 2130002 in their
3rd Semester. It covers the complete GTU syllabus for the course on Advanced
Engineering Mathematics, which is common to all the engineering branches.

Objective
The crisp and complete explanation of topics will help students easily understand the
basic concepts. The tutorial approach (i.e., teach by example) followed in the text will
enable students develop a logical perspective to solving problems.

Features
Each topic has been explained from the examination point of view, wherein the theory
is presented in an easy-to-understand student-friendly style. Full coverage of concepts
is supported by numerous solved examples with varied complexity levels, which is
aligned to the latest GTU syllabus. Fundamental and sequential explanation of topics
are well aided by examples and exercises. The solutions of examples are set follow-
ing a ‘tutorial’ approach, which will make it easy for students from any background
to easily grasp the concepts. Exercises with answers immediately follow the solved
examples enforcing a practice-based approach. We hope that the students will gain
logical understanding from solved problems and then reiterate it through solving simi-
lar exercise problems themselves. The unique blend of theory and application caters to
the requirements of both the students and the faculty. Solutions of GTU examination
questions are incorporated within the text appropriately.
xii Preface

Highlights
∑ Crisp content strictly as per the latest GTU syllabus of Advanced Engineering
Mathematics (Regulation 2014)
∑ Comprehensive coverage with lucid presentation style
∑ Each section concludes with an exercise to test understanding of topics
∑ Solutions of GTU examination questions from 2012 to 2018 present appropriately
within the chapters and on companion web link
∑ Rich exam-oriented pedagogy:
 Solved examples within chapters: 475
 Solved GTU questions within chapters: 247
 Unsolved exercises: 571
 MCQs at the end of chapters: 121
 MCQs on web link: 50

Chapter Organization
The content spans the following six chapters which wholly and sequentially cover
each module of the syllabus.
 Chapter 1 introduces Some Special Functions.
 Chapter 2 discusses Fourier Series and Fourier Integral.
 Chapter 3 presents Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications.
 Chapter 4 covers Series Solution of Differential Equations.
 Chapter 5 deals with Laplace Transforms and Applications.
 Chapter 6 presents Partial Differential Equations and Applications.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following reviewers who reviewed various chapters of the script
or previous editions of the book and generously shared their valuable comments:
Mukesh Shimpi BVM Engineering College, Anand, Gujarat
Manokamna Agrawal Silver Oak College of Engineering and Technology,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Som Sahni ITM Universe Vadodara
Vijay Solanki GEC Bharuch
Foram Rajdev Marwadi Education Foundation Group of
Institutions, Rajkot
Vishal Bhatt Marwadi Education Foundation Group of
Institutions, Rajkot
Usha Bag Shree L R Tiwari College of Engineering,
Thane, Maharashtra
 Preface xiii

We would also like to thank all the staff at McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Vibha Mahajan, Shalini Jha, Hemant K Jha, Tushar Mishra, Satinder Singh Baveja,
Taranpreet Kaur and Anuj Shriwastava for coordinating with us during the editorial,
copyediting, and production stages of this book.
Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of
all our family members. We extend a heartfelt thanks to them for always motivating
and supporting us throughout the project.
Constructive suggestions for the improvement of the book will always be welcome.
Ravish R Singh
Mukul Bhatt

Publisher’s Note
Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback,
comments and ideas to enhance the quality of this book. You can reach us at
[email protected]. Please mention the title and authors’ name as the
subject. In case you spot piracy of this book, please do let us know.
RoAdmAP to the SyllAbuS
This text is useful for
SUBjECT CodE: 2130002 – Advanced Engineering Mathematics

Module 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions

Gamma function; Beta function; Bessel function; Error function and
complementary error function; Heaviside’s function; Pulse unit height and
duration function; Sinusoidal pulse function; Rectangle function; Gate function;
Dirac’s Delta function; Signum function; Sawtooth wave function; Triangular
wave function; Half-wave rectified sinusoidal function; Full rectified sine
wave; Square wave function.

GO TO
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions

Module 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral

Periodic function; Trigonometric series; Fourier series; Functions of any period;
Even and odd functions; Half-range expansion; Forced oscillations; Fourier
integral.

GO TO
CHAPTER 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral

Module 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications

First order differential equations: basic concepts; Geometric meaning of
y ’ = f (x, y) Direction fields; Exact differential equations; Integrating factor;
Linear differential equations; Bernoulli equations; Modeling: Orthogonal
trajectories of curves; Linear differential equations of second and higher
order: Homogeneous linear differential equations of second order; Modeling:
Free oscillations; Euler-Cauchy Equations; Wronskian; Nonhomogeneous
equations; Solution by undetermined coefficients; Solution by variation of
parameters; Modeling: Free Oscillations, Resonance and electric circuits; Higher
order linear differential equations; Higher order homogeneous equations with
constant coefficient; Higher order nonhomogeneous equations. Solution by
[1/f(D)] r(x) method for finding particular integral.

GO TO
CHAPTER 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications
xvi Roadmap to the Syllabus

Module 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations

Power series method; Theory of power series methods; Frobenius method.

GO TO
CHAPTER 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations

Module 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications

Definition of the Laplace transform; Inverse Laplace transform; Linearity;
Shifting theorem; Transforms of derivatives and integrals; Differential
equations; Unit step function; Second shifting theorem; Dirac’s delta function;
Differentiation and integration of transforms; Convolution and integral
equations; Partial fraction differential equations; Systems of differential
equations.

GO TO
CHAPTER 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications

Module 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications

Formation of PDEs; Solution of partial differential equations f(x, y, z, p, q) = 0;
Nonlinear PDEs of first order; Some standard forms of nonlinear PDEs; Linear
PDEs with constant coefficients; Equations reducible to homogeneous linear
form; Classification of second-order linear PDEs; Separation of variables; Use
of Fourier series; D’Alembert’s solution of the wave equation; Heat equation:
Solution by Fourier series and Fourier integral.

GO TO
CHAPTER 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications
CHAPTER
1
Introduction to Some
Special Functions

chapter outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Gamma Function
1.3 Beta Function
1.4 Bessel Function
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function
1.6 Heaviside’s Unit Step Function
1.7 Pulse of Unit Height and Duration Function
1.8 Sinusoidal Pulse Function
1.9 Rectangle Function
1.10 Gate Function
1.11 Dirac’s Delta Function
1.12 Signum Function
1.13 Sawtooth Wave Function
1.14 Triangular Wave Function
1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function
1.16 Full-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function
1.17 Square-Wave Function

1.1 IntroductIon

There are some special functions which have importance in mathematical analysis,
functional analysis, physics, or other applications. In this chapter, we will study
different special functions such as gamma, beta, Bessel, error, unit step, Dirac delta
functions, etc. The study of these functions will help in solving many mathematical
problems encountered in advanced engineering mathematics.
1.2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Some Special Functions

1.2 Gamma FunctIon

[Winter 2013]
The gamma function is an extension of the factorial function to real and complex
numbers and is also known as Euler integral of the second kind. The gamma function
is a component in various probability-distribution functions. It also appears in various
areas such as asymptotic series, definite integration, number theory, etc.
• - x n -1
The gamma function is defined by the improper integral Ú0 e x dx, n > 0 and is

denoted by n .
•
Hence, n = Ú e - x x n -1 dx , n > 0
0

The gamma function can also be expressed as

• 2
n = 2 Ú e - x x 2 n -1 dx
0

Properties of the Gamma Function

(i) n +1 = n n
This is known as recurrence formula or reduction formula for the gamma
function.
(ii) n + 1 = n ! if n is a positive integer
n +1
(iii) n= if n is a negative fraction
n
p
(iv) n 1- n =
sin np

(v) 1
= p
2

1.3 Beta FunctIon

[Winter 2016, 2015, 2014; Summer 2016, 2014, 2013]
The beta function B(m, n) is defined by
1
B(m, n) = Ú x m -1 (1 - x )n -1 dx, m > 0, n > 0
0

B(m, n) is also known as Euler’s integral of the first kind. The beta function can also
be defined by
p
B(m, n) = 2Ú 2 sin 2 m -1 x cos2 n -1 x dx
0
 1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function 1.3

Properties of the Beta Function

(i) The beta function is a symmetric function, i.e., B(m, n) = B(n, m).
m n
(ii) B(m, n) =
m+n
1 p 2m
(iii) m m+ = 2 m -1
2 2
This is known as duplication formula.
• x m -1
(iv) B(m, n) = Ú dx
0 (1 + x )m + n
This is called improper integral form of the beta function.

1.4 Bessel FunctIon

The Bessel function (Fig. 1.1) is a special function that occurs in problems of wave
propagation, static potentials, and signal processing. A Bessel function of order n is
defined by
• n+2k
( -1)kÊ xˆ
J n ( x) =  k ! n + k + 1 ÁË 2 ˜¯
k =0

xnÈ x2 x4 ˘
= Í1 - + - L˙
2 n + 1 Î 2(n + 2) 2 ◊ 4(2 n + 2)(2 n + 4)
n
˚
Properties of Bessel Functions
J0(x)
x2 x4
(i) J 0 ( x ) = 1 -+ -L 1
22 22 ◊ 42 0.8
0.6
(ii) J–n(x) = (–1)n Jn(x) if n is a positive 0.4
integer 0.2
x
0 5 10 15 20
–0.2
(iii) 2 n J n ( x ) = J n +1 ( x ) + J n -1 ( x ) –0.4
x
d È n Fig. 1.1 Bessel function
(iv) x J n ( x )˘˚ = x n J n -1 ( x )
dx Î
(v) d È x - n J n ( x )˘ = - x - n J n +1 ( x )
dx Î ˚

1.5 error FunctIon and comPlementary

error FunctIon
[Winter 2012]
The error function (Fig. 1.2) is a special function that occurs in probability, statistics,
and partial differential equations.
1.4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Some Special Functions

The error function of x is defined by

erf(x)
2 x -t2
erf ( x ) =
p
Ú
0
e dt
0.75
1

where x may be a real or complex variable. 0.5

The complementary error function of x is 0.25

defined by x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–0.25
2 • -t2
erfc( x ) = Ú e dt
p x
–0.5
–0.75
where x may be a real or complex variable. –1
Relation between error function and the com- Fig. 1.2 Error function
plementary error function is given by
2 • -t2
erfc( x ) = Ú e dt
p x
2 • -t2 2 x -t2
= Ú e
p 0
dt - Ú e
p 0
dt

2 Ê pˆ
= Á ˜ - erf ( x )
p Ë 2 ¯
= 1 - erf ( x )

Properties of the error Function

(i) erf (0) = 0
(ii) erf ( •) = 1
(iii) erf (–x) = –erf (x)
(iv) erf ( z ) = erf ( z ), where z is any complex number and z is the complex
conjugate of z.

1.6 HeavIsIde’s unIt steP FunctIon

[Winter 2016, 2014]
Heaviside’s unit step function u(t) (Fig. 1.3) is defined by
u(t)
u(t ) = 0 t<0
1
=1 t>0
t
The displaced or delayed unit step function 0
Fig 1.3 Unit step function
u(t – a) (Fig. 1.4) represents the function u(t) which
is displaced by a distance a to the right. It is defined
by
u(t - a ) = 0 t<a
=1 t>a Fig. 1.4 Delayed unit step
function
 1.9 Rectangle Function 1.5

Properties of the unit step Function

(i) f (t ) u(t ) = 0 t<0
= f (t ) t>0
(ii) f (t ) u(t - a ) = 0 t<a
= f (t ) t>a
(iii) f (t - a ) u(t - b) = 0 t<b
= f (t - a ) t>b
(iv) f (t ) [u(t - a ) - u(t - b)] = 0 t<a
= f (t ) a<t<b
=0 t>b

1.7 Pulse oF unIt HeIGHt and duratIon FunctIon

The pulse of unit height and duration function
(Fig. 1.5) is defined by
f (t ) = 1 0<t <T
=0 t >T Fig. 1.5 Pulse of unit height
and duration function

1.8 sInusoIdal Pulse FunctIon

[Winter 2012; Summer 2014]

The sinusoidal pulse function (Fig. 1.6) is defined by
p
f (t ) = a sin at 0<t<
a
p
=0 t>
a
Fig. 1.6 Sinusoidal pulse
function
1.9 rectanGle FunctIon
[Winter 2017; Summer 2013]
The rectangle function (Fig. 1.7) is defined by
f (t ) = 1 a<t<b
=0 otherwise
Fig. 1.7 Rectangle function
In terms of unit step function, the rectangle function
can be expressed as
f(t) = u(t – a) – u(t – b)
1.6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Some Special Functions

If a = 0, the rectangle function reduces to a pulse of unit height and duration b

function.

1.10 Gate FunctIon

The gate function (Fig. 1.8) is defined by

f (t ) = 1 |t | < a
=0 |t | > a
Fig. 1.8 Gate function

1.11 dIrac’s delta FunctIon

[Winter 2014, 2013]
Consider the function f(t) (Fig. 1.9) over a time interval 0 < t < Œ, defined by
f (t ) = 0 -• < t < 0
1
= 0<t<Œ
Œ
=0 Œ< t < •
Fig. 1.9 any function
The area enclosed by the function f(t) and the t-axis is f(t)
given by
• 0 Œ •
Ú-• f (t ) dt = Ú-• f (t ) dt + Ú0 f ( t ) dt + Ú f ( t ) d t
Œ
Œ1
= 0+Ú dt + 0
0 Œ
1 Œ
= t
Π0
1
= Œ
Œ
=1
As Œ Æ 0, the height of the rectangle increases indefinitely in such a way that its area
is always equal to 1. This function is known as Dirac’s delta function or unit impulse
function and is denoted by d (t).
\ d (t ) = lim f (t )
ή0
The displaced (delayed) delta or displaced impulse
function d (t – a) (Fig. 1.10) represents the function
d (t) displaced by a distance a to the right.
Ï0 -• < t < a Fig. 1.10 Delayed function
Ô1
Ô
d (t - a ) = lim f (t ) = lim Ì a<t<a+Œ
ŒÆ 0 ŒÆ 0 Œ
Ô
ÔÓ0 a + Œ< t < •
 1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.7

Properties of dirac’s delta Function

(i) d (t) = 0 tπ0
•
(ii) Ú-• d (t ) dt = 1
•
(iii)
Ú-• f (t ) d (t ) dt = f (0)
•
(iv) Ú-• f (t ) d (t - a) dt = f (a)
1.12 sIGnum FunctIon

The signum function (Fig. 1.11) is defined by f(t)

f (t ) = 1 t>0 1
= -1 t<0 0 t

In terms of unit step function, the signum function can –1

be expressed as Fig. 1.11 Signum function
f(t) = u(t) – u(–t) = 2u(t) – 1

1.13 sawtootH wave FunctIon

[Winter 2017]
The sawtooth wave function with period a (Fig. 1.12)
is defined by
f (t ) = t 0<t<a
=0 t<0
Fig. 1.12 Sawtooth wave
function
1.14 trIanGular wave FunctIon
The triangular wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.13)
is defined by
f (t ) = t 0<t<a
Fig. 1.13 Triangular
= 2a - t a < t < 2a
wave function

1.15 HalF-wave rectIFIed sInusoIdal FunctIon

The half-wave rectified sinusoidal function with
period 2p (Fig. 1.14) is defined by
f (t ) = a sin t 0<t <p
=0 p < t < 2p Fig. 1.14 Half-wave rectified
sinusoidal function
1.8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Some Special Functions

1.16 Full-wave rectIFIed sInusoIdal FunctIon

The full-wave rectified sinusoidal function with
period p (Fig. 1.15) is defined by
f (t) = a sin t 0<t<p
Fig. 1.15 Full-wave rectified
sinusoidal function
1.17 square-wave FunctIon

The square-wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.16)

is defined by
f (t ) = a 0<t<a
= -a a < t < 2a
Fig. 1.16 Square-wave
function

multiple choice questions

Select the most appropriate response out of the various alternatives given in each
of the following questions:

Ê 13 ˆ
1. The value of Á ˜ is [Winter 2015]
Ë 2¯
10395 10395
(a) p (b) p
64 64
10395 1 10395 1
(c) (d)
64 p 64 p
2. The relationship between beta and gamma functions is
[Winter 2016, 2015; Summer 2017]
m n m n
(a) B(m, n) = (b) B(m, n) =
m+n m+n

mn m+n
(c) B(m, n) = (d) B(m, n)
m+n mn
3. Duplication formula is [Summer 2016]
1 p 2m
(a) m m- = (b) m m + 1 = p 2 m
2 2m - 1 2 22 m - 1
1 p 1 2m
(c) m m+ = 2m - 1 (d) m m + = 2m - 1
2 2 2 2
 Multiple Choice Questions 1.9

Ê 9 7ˆ
4. The value of B Á , ˜ is [Summer 2016]
Ë 2 2¯

p 5p p 5p
(a) (d) (c) (d)
1024 1024 2048 2048

5. The value of ÊÁ 1 ˆ˜ is [Winter 2016]

Ë 2¯
1 1
(a) p (b) p (c) (d)
2 p
Ê 1ˆ Ê 3ˆ
6. The value of Á ˜ Á ˜ is
Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯

(a) 2 p (b) 2 p (c) 2p (d) 2p

Ê 1 1ˆ
7. The value of B Á , ˜ is
Ë 2 2¯
p
(a) p (b) p (c) (d) 2p
2
•
8. The value of Ú f (t ) d (t ) dt is
-•
(a) f(•) (b) f(0) (c) 0 (d) 1
9. The signum function can be expressed as
(a) u(t) – u(–t) (b) u(t) + u(–t)
(c) 2u(t) (d) 2u(t) + 1
10. The value of J n + 1 ( x ) + J n - 1 ( x ) is

2 2n 1 n
(a) J ( x) (b) J ( x) (c) J ( x) (d) J ( x)
x n x n x n x n
11. The value of erf (•) is
(a) 0 (b) –1 (c) 1 (d) 2
12. Heaviside’s unit function, u(t) is defined by
(a) u(t ) = 0 t<0 (b) u(t ) = 1 t<0
=1 t>0 =0 t>0

(c) u(t ) = - 1 t < 0 (d) u(t ) = 0 t<0

=1 t>0 = -1 t > 0
1.10 Chapter 1 Introduction to Some Special Functions

7
13. The value of is [Summer 2017]
2

15 p 5 p 15 p 15 p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 8 2 4

answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a)
CHAPTER
2
Fourier Series and
Fourier Integral

chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Periodic Functions
2.3 Fourier Series
2.4 Trigonometric Fourier Series
2.5 Fourier Series of Functions of any Period
2.6 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions
2.7 Half-Range Fourier Series
2.8 Fourier Integral

2.1 IntroductIon
Fourier series is used in the analysis of periodic functions. Many of the phenomena
studied in engineering and sciences are periodic in nature, e.g., current and voltage
in an ac circuit. These periodic functions can be analyzed into their constituent
components by a Fourier analysis. The Fourier series makes use of orthogonality
relationships of the sine and cosine functions. It decomposes a periodic function into a
sum of sine-cosine functions. The computation and study of Fourier series is known
as harmonic analysis. It has many applications in electrical engineering, vibration
analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing, etc.

2.2 PerIodIc FunctIons

A function f(x) is said to be periodic with period T > 0, if f (x) = f (x + T) for all real x.
The function f(x) repeats itself after each interval of T. If f (x) = f (x + T) = f (x + 2T)
= f (x + 3T) = ... then T is called the period of the function f (x).
e.g. sin x is a periodic function with period 2p. Hence, sin x = sin(x + 2p).
2.2 Chapter 2 Fourier Series and Fourier Integral

2.3 FourIer serIes

Representation of a function over a certain interval by a linear combination of mutually
orthogonal functions is called Fourier series representation.

convergence of the Fourier series (dirichlet’s conditions)

A function f (x) can be represented by a complete set of orthogonal functions within the
interval (c, c + 2l). The Fourier series of the function f (x) exists only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (x) is periodic, i.e., f (x) = f (x + 2l), where 2l is the period of the function
f (x).
(ii) f (x) and its integrals are finite and single-valued.
(iii) f (x) has a finite number of discontinuities, i.e., f (x) is piecewise continuous in
the interval (c, c + 2l).
(iv) f (x) has a finite number of maxima and minima.
These conditions are known as Dirichlet’s conditions.

2.4 trIgonometrIc FourIer serIes

np x np x
We know that the set of functions sin and cos are orthogonal in the interval
l l
(c, c + 2l) for any value of c, where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
c + 2l mp x np x
i.e., Úc sin
l
sin
l
dx = 0 mπn

=l m=n
c + 2l mp x np x
Úc cos
l
cos
l
dx = 0 mπn

=l m=n
c + 2l mp x np x
Úc sin
l
cos
l
dx = 0 for all m, n

Hence, any function f (x) can be represented in terms of these orthogonal functions in
the interval (c, c + 2l) for any value of c.
•
np x • np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin
n =1 l n =1 l

This series is known as a trigonometric Fourier series or simply, a Fourier series. For
example, a square function can be constructed by adding orthogonal sine components
(Fig. 2.1).
 2.5 Fourier Series of Functions of Any Period 2.3

f (x)

x One sine component

O

f (x)

x Addition of two sine

O components
f (x)

x Addition of three sine

O components
..
..
f (x) ..
.
Addition of many sine
x
O components
..
f (x)

x Square function
O

Fig. 2.1 Representation of a function in terms of sine components

2.5 FourIer serIes oF FunctIons oF Any PerIod

Let f (x) be a periodic function with period 2l in the interval (c, c + 2l). Then the Fourier
series of f (x) is given by
•
np x • np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin …(2.1)
n =1 l n =1 l

determination of a0
Integrating both the sides of Eq. (2.1) w.r.t. x in the interval (c, c + 2l),
c + 2l c + 2l c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ
Úc f ( x )dx = a0 Ú dx + Ú Á Â an cos l ˜ dx + Úc Á Â bn sin l ˜ dx
c c Ë n =1 ¯ Ë n =1 ¯
= a0(c + 2l – c) + 0 + 0
= 2la0
1 c + 2l
2l Úc
Hence, a0 = f ( x )dx …(2.2)
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