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OCEANOGRAPHY
and
MARINE BIOLOGY
AN ANNUAL REVIEW

Volume 42
2727_C00.fm Page 2 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:52 AM
OCEANOGRAPHY
and
MARINE BIOLOGY
AN ANNUAL REVIEW

Volume 42

Editors
R.N. Gibson
Scottish Association for Marine Science
The Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory
Oban, Argyll, Scotland
[email protected]

R.J.A. Atkinson
University Marine Biology Station Millport
University of London
Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland
[email protected]

J.D.M. Gordon
Scottish Association for Marine Science
The Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory
Oban, Argyll, Scotland
[email protected]

Founded by Harold Barnes

CRC PR E S S
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2004 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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2727_C00.fm Page 5 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:52 AM

Contents
Preface vii

Convective Chimneys in the Greenland Sea: A Review of Recent Observations 1

Peter Wadhams

The Role of Dimethylsulphoxide in the Marine Biogeochemical Cycle

of Dimethylsulphide 29
Angela D. Hatton, Louise Darroch & Gill Malin

The Essential Role of Exopolymers (EPS) in Aquatic Systems 57

Roger S. Wotton

Marine Microbial Thiotrophic Ectosymbioses 95

J. Ott, M. Bright & S. Bulgheresi

The Marine Insect Halobates (Heteroptera: Gerridae): Biology, Adaptations,

Distribution, and Phylogeny 119
Nils Møller Andersen & Lanna Cheng

The Ecology of Rafting in the Marine Environment. I. The Floating Substrata 181
Martin Thiel & Lars Gutow

Spawning Aggregations of Coral Reef Fishes: Characteristics, Hypotheses, Threats

and Management 265
John Claydon

Impacts of Human Activities on Marine Animal Life in the Benguela: A Historical

Overview 303
C.L. Griffiths, L. van Sittert, P.B. Best, A.C. Brown, B.M. Clark, P.A. Cook, R.J.M. Crawford,
J.H.M. David, B.R. Davies, M.H. Griffiths, K. Hutchings, A. Jerardino, N. Kruger,
S. Lamberth, R.W. Leslie, R. Melville-Smith, R. Tarr & C.D. van der Lingen

Author Index 393

Systematic Index 421

Subject Index 428

2727_C00.fm Page 6 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:52 AM
2727_C00.fm Page 7 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:52 AM

Preface
The 42nd volume of this series contains eight reviews written by an international array of authors
that, as usual, range widely in subject and taxonomic and geographic coverage. The majority of
articles were solicited, but the editors always welcome suggestions from potential authors for topics
they consider could form the basis of appropriate contributions. Because an annual publication
schedule necessarily places constraints on the timetable for submission, evaluation, and acceptance
of manuscripts, potential contributors are advised to make contact with the editors at an early stage
of preparation so that the delay between submission and publication is minimised.
The editors gratefully acknowledge the willingness and speed with which authors complied
with the editors’ suggestions, requests, and questions. This year has also seen further changes in
publisher (CRC Press) and in the editorial team and it is a pleasure to welcome Dr. J.D.M. Gordon
as a co-editor for the series.
2727_C00.fm Page 8 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:52 AM
2727_C01.fm Page 1 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:53 AM

CONVECTIVE CHIMNEYS IN THE GREENLAND SEA:

A REVIEW OF RECENT OBSERVATIONS
PETER WADHAMS
Scottish Association for Marine Science, Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory,
Oban PA37 1QA, Scotland, and
Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics,
University of Cambridge, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, England
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract The nature and role of chimneys as a mode of open-ocean winter convection in the
Greenland Sea are reviewed, beginning with a brief summary of Greenland Sea circulation and of
observations of convection and of the resulting water structure. Then recent observations of long-
lived chimneys in the Greenland Sea are described, setting them within the context of earlier
observations and models. The longest-lived chimney yet seen in the world ocean was discovered
in March 2001 at about 75˚N 0˚W, and subsequent observations have shown that it has survived
for a further 26 months, having been remapped in summer 2001, winter 2002, summer 2002, and
April–May 2003. The chimney has an anticyclonically rotating core with a uniform rotation rate
of f/2 to a diameter of 9 km; it passes through an annual cycle in which it is uniform in properties
from the surface to 2500 m in winter, while being capped by lower-density water in summer
(primarily a 50-m-thick near-surface layer of low salinity and a 500-m-thick layer of higher salinity).
The most recent cruise also discovered a second chimney some 70 km NW of the first, and
accomplished a tightly gridded survey of 15,000 km2 of the gyre centre, effectively excluding the
possibility of further chimneys. The conclusion is that the 75˚/0˚chimney is not a unique feature,
but that Greenland Sea chimneys are rare and are probably rarer than in 1997, when at least four
rotating features were discovered by a float survey. This has important implications for ideas about
chimney formation, for deepwater renewal in the Greenland Sea, and for the role of Greenland Sea
convection in the North Atlantic circulation.

Convection in the world ocean

Open-ocean deep convection is a process of ventilation, not associated with coastal processes, that
feeds the global thermohaline circulation. It occurs in winter at only three main Northern Hemi-
sphere sites (Greenland, Labrador, and Mediterranean Seas) as well as in the Weddell Sea and a
small number of other locations in Antarctica. These sites are of small geographical extent, occu-
pying only a few thousandths of the area of the world ocean, yet they are of great importance for
climate, because it is only through deep ventilation that a complete vertical circulation of the ocean
can take place, with dissolved gases and nutrients cycling back into the depths. In some cases
intense atmospheric cooling alone increases the surface water density to the point where the
overturning and sinking can occur. In others, sea ice is involved. The modes of convection at the
various key sites have been reviewed by Marshall & Schott (1999).

0-8493-2727-X/04/$0.00+$1.50
Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 2004 42, 29–56
© R. N. Gibson, R. J. A. Atkinson, and J. D. M. Gordon, Editors 1
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2 P. Wadhams

In the case of the Northern Hemisphere, the Greenland Sea and the Labrador Sea form the
sinking component of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation, or meridional overturning circulation,
and any changes in convection at these two sites will therefore have an impact on global climate,
and most certainly on northwest European climate, which is so dependent on the strength of the
Gulf Stream (Rahmstorf & Ganopolski 1999). Since the 1980s a series of international, mainly
European, research programmes has focused on the central Greenland Sea gyre region and its
structure in winter. Initially attention focused on the relatively shallow (1000–1400 m) convection
that occurs over the whole central gyre region, due to either plumes or mixed-layer deepening. But
from 1997 onward the observed presence of chimneys, long predicted, has changed our view of
the character of mid-gyre convection. Convection in the Labrador Sea has also been studied
intensively in recent years, primarily by a single large international programme (Lab Sea Group
1998).
Recently Pickart et al. (2003) showed that at times of high positive North Atlantic Oscillation
(NAO), an overturning occurs in the Irminger Sea, giving a third convection site within the northern
North Atlantic region. The Irminger Sea had been invoked as a possible convection site in early
papers from the 1960s and 1970s, but had subsequently been disregarded. The observational
evidence produced by Pickart et al. (2003) shows that convection can occur south of the Denmark
Strait overflow but not necessarily in phase with convection from the Labrador Sea, giving an added
complexity to the question of the relation between overall convection volume and the NAO index.
In simplified terms, a positive NAO index corresponds to an anomalous low over Iceland, which
induces enhanced cold northwesterly winds over the Labrador Sea (giving increased convection)
and enhanced warm easterly winds over the Greenland Sea (reducing convection), a seesaw effect
that is reversed when the NAO changes sign. Because the volume of Labrador Sea convection is
in general greater than that of the Greenland Sea, it is expected that Northern Hemisphere convection
volume will be greatest during positive NAO periods. However, modelling studies (Wood et al.
1999) suggest that due to global warming, convection in the Labrador Sea is set to diminish and
may vanish altogether in 30 yr, regardless of the state of the NAO.
This review focuses on the Greenland Sea, surveys the recent observations of chimneys, from
which the results are in many cases still in press, and attempts to draw some conclusions about the
nature and role of Greenland Sea chimneys in the overall scheme of convection.

The geography of the Greenland Sea gyre

Convection in the Greenland Sea occurs in the centre of the Greenland Sea gyre, at about 75˚N
0–5˚W. This region is bounded to the west by the cold, fresh polar surface water of the southward-
flowing East Greenland Current (EGC), advecting ice and water of polar origin into the system
from the Arctic Basin. To the east it is bounded by the warm northward-flowing Norwegian Atlantic
Current (Figure 1, in the colour insert following page 56), which changes its name farther north
to the West Spitsbergen Current (WSC). Its boundary to the south is a cold current that diverts
from the East Greenland Current at about 72–73˚N because of bottom topography and wind stress.
This is called the Jan Mayen Polar Current, and in winter, at least until recent years, it develops
its own local ice cover of frazil and pancake ice due to high-ocean-atmosphere heat fluxes acting
on a cold water surface, forming a tongue-shaped ice feature called Odden (Norwegian: headland),
which can be up to 250,000 km2 in area (Figure 2, see colour insert). Its curvature embraces a bay
of ice-free water, called Nordbukta, which tends to correspond with the gyre centre. In heavy ice
years Nordbukta becomes ice covered, so that the two features together form a bulge in the ice
edge trend at these latitudes.
Frazil–pancake ice can grow very quickly, and with the initial skim having a salinity of 12–18,
more than half of the brine content of the freezing sea water is rejected immediately back into the
ocean. The salinity increase caused by brine rejection may be a more important trigger than surface
cooling for overturning of the surface water and the formation of convective plumes that carry
2727_C01.fm Page 3 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:53 AM

Convective Chimneys in the Greenland Sea: A Review of Recent Observations 3

surface water down through the pycnocline into the intermediate and deep layers. Of course, over
a whole year ice formation and ice melt balance out so that the net overall salt flux is zero. However,
the ice formation and melt regions are geographically separated. The ice growth occurs on the
western side of Odden, while the ice formed is moved eastward by the wind to melt at the eastern,
outer edge of the ice feature. Consequently, there is a net positive salt flux in a zone that is found
to be the most fertile source of deep water. The connection between Odden ice and convection has
been explored in salt flux models that take account of ice formation, ice advection, and brine
drainage (e.g., Wilkinson & Wadhams 2003). Evidence from recent hydrographic and tracer studies
has shown that convection has become weaker and shallower in recent years, while there has also
been a decline in ice formation within Odden, but it is still an open question whether there is a
causal association between these two sets of changes. Also, it is not yet clear whether the decline
of Odden is a trend deriving from global warming or a cyclic effect associated with a particular
pattern of wind field over the Greenland Sea. Wadhams et al. (1996), Toudal (1999) and Comiso
et al. (2001) have discussed the interannual variability of Odden and have shown how on increas-
ingly frequent occasions during the last decade (1994, 1995, and 1999 onward), it has failed
altogether to develop.
The eastern edge of the East Greenland Current corresponds to the position of the main Arctic
ice edge in winter, giving rise to interactions that result in ice edge eddies and other phenomena,
but in summer the ice retreats westward and northward. In winter of an average year the ice reaches
Kap Farvel, whereas in summer the ice edge retreats to about 74˚N, although there is a large
interannual variability. In September 1996, for instance, there was a period of a month in which
no ice occurred within Fram Strait. Figure 3 (see colour insert) shows the magnitude of the 10-yr
variability (1966–75) for a winter and a summer month. It can be seen that the East Greenland
Current and Barents Sea together offer the longest stretch of marginal ice zone in the Arctic, facing
onto the Norwegian–Greenland Sea, which is well known for its storminess. Ice is transported into
the Greenland Sea from the Arctic Ocean at a rate of some 3000 km3 yr–1 and melts as it moves
southward, so that the Greenland Sea as a whole, when averaged over a year, is an ice sink and
thus a freshwater source. The freshwater supplied to the Greenland Sea gyre from the Arctic Ocean
via the EGC has a flux that varies greatly from year to year as well as seasonally, and this variability
may exert control over convection by altering the freshwater input to the surface waters of the
convective region during summer (Aagaard & Carmack 1989).
The role of the Greenland Sea as the main route for water and heat exchanges between the
Arctic Ocean and the rest of the world also extends to subsurface transport. It is a part of the Arctic
Intermediate Water (AIW) formed during convection in the Greenland Sea that ventilates the North
Atlantic (Aagaard et al. 1985) and supplies the Iceland–Scotland overflow (Mauritzen 1996a,b).
Another source of AIW formation is the Norwegian Atlantic Current, which enters the Arctic Ocean
(as the WSC), circulates, and enters the Greenland Sea through Fram Strait as the EGC, moving
down toward Denmark Strait (Rudels et al. 1999). The Arctic circumpolar current experiences
numerous branchings and mergings, in particular in Fram Strait. This has been described by a
number of authors (Quadfasel et al. 1987, Foldvik et al. 1988, Gascard et al. 1995) and modelled
in detail by Schlichtholz & Houssais (1999a,b).
Historically, ice conditions in the Greenland Sea were first described in the classic work of
William Scoresby (1815, 1820), while the pioneering oceanographic work of Helland-Hansen &
Nansen (1909) early this past century began an era of continuous effort, much of it by Scandinavian
oceanographers, which has led to improved understanding of the complex water mass structure.
The present era of intensive work on Greenland Sea convection began with an international research
programme known as the Greenland Sea Project (GSP), which started in 1987 with an intensive
field phase in 1988–89. GSP studied the rates of water mass transformation and transport, the food
chain dynamics, the life cycles of dominant plankton species, and particulate export (GSP Group
1990). It was realised that insufficient attention had been paid to the carbon cycling and export in
this area, with exceptions such as the long-term sediment trap programme of Honjo et al. (1987)
2727_C01.fm Page 4 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:53 AM

4 P. Wadhams

and two expeditions that collected inorganic carbon data in this region during the early 1980s
(Brewer et al. 1986, Chen et al. 1990). New data suggested that convection may be associated with
a carbon flux that is significant in the removal, or sequestration, of anthropogenic CO2 from the
atmosphere: surface waters in the region have consistently been found to be significantly under-
saturated in dissolved CO2 (Skjelvan et al. 1999, Hood et al. 1999).
In 1993 GSP evolved into the European Subpolar Ocean Programme (ESOP), an EU project
coordinated by the present author, with an intensive field phase during winter 1993 and further
field operations in 1994 and 1995, with a final study of the 1996 Odden development (Wadhams
et al. 1999). In 1996 a successor programme began called ESOP-2, coordinated by E. Jansen, which
focused on the thermohaline circulation of the Greenland Sea and which lasted until 1999. Most
recently, CONVECTION (2001–3), another EU project coordinated by the present author, has
concentrated on the physical processes underlying convection and has involved winter and summer
cruises each year.

Observations of convection before 2001

Depth of overturning
During the period since about 1970 deep winter convection in the Greenland Sea was thought to
have ceased. Evidence from the temperature–salinity (T,S) structure of Greenland Sea Deep Water
(GSDW) suggested that significant renewal by surface ventilation last occurred in 1971. Tracer
measurements using chlorofluoromethane suggested that convection below 2000 m stopped before
1982, while convection below 1500 m decreased from 0.8–1.2 Sv before 1982 to 0.1–0.38 Sv
during 1983–89 (Rhein 1991) and less than 0.14 Sv during 1989–93 (Rhein 1996), results supported
by tritium observations (Schlosser et al. 1991). Direct observations of deep convection from
oceanographic surveys, and interpretations from tomography, showed that a depth of 1800 m was
achieved in 1989 (Schott et al. 1993, Morawitz et al. 1996), but that in more recent years the typical
depth was 1000–1200 m. Depths exceeding 2000 m were last observed in 1974, except for a single
surface-to-bottom event in 1984 (Alekseev et al. 1994).

The 1997 chimney(s)

During the 1996–97 winter field season of ESOP-2, a series of subsurface floats was deployed in
the central gyre region by Gascard (1999). Five of 16 floats released within the region 74–76˚N,
1˚E–4˚W, at depths between 240 and 530 m, adopted anticyclonically rotating trajectories of small
radius (Figure 4, see colour insert). In most cases the centre of rotation slowly advected around
the region, but in the case of a buoy positioned at 75˚N 0˚W the centre remained essentially
stationary for several months. In this case, reported in detail by Gascard et al. (2002), the buoy
remained for 150 days near the gyre centre, recording an ambient temperature of about –1˚C, before
spiralling outward. Their interpretation of the trajectory was that the buoy was trapped in an eddy
with a core of diameter about 5 km, which rotated as a solid body, and a more slowly rotating
“skirt” extending out to a radius of 15 km, in which the angular velocity decreased with increasing
distance from the centre. The relative vorticity of the core was about –f/2, where f is the planetary
vorticity, diminishing to –f/8 at 8-km radius.
At first the apparent subsurface eddies in which the floats were trapped were not identified
with chimneys, but in May 1997 a section along 75˚N included one station at 0˚W that showed a
uniform temperature–salinity structure extending from near the surface to some 2200 m. The section
was associated with an experiment to release SF6 tracer within the Greenland Sea (Watson et al.
1999), and it was found that this station displayed low SF6 levels and high levels of chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs) and dissolved oxygen.
2727_C01.fm Page 5 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:53 AM

Convective Chimneys in the Greenland Sea: A Review of Recent Observations 5

The conclusion reached by Gascard et al. (2002) was that the station and the float trajectory
were indicators of a chimney (although in their paper they continued to describe it as an eddy) at
75˚N 0˚W (leaving open the question of whether the other floats were trapped in other chimneys).
The winter of 1996–97 had been extremely cold, with air–sea heat fluxes in January 1997 as high
as 1400 W m–2 (average for a month about 500 wm–2). Their conclusion was that during this month
surface water, cooled to about –1˚C, mixed with the stratified rotating water mass that comprised
the gyre centre and produced rotating lenses by a mechanism described by Gill (1981). Such lenses,
however, were observed in tank experiments (Hedstrom & Armi 1988) to have a fast-spin down
phase that would correspond to a lifetime of about 70 rotations, about 4–6 months. Thus, the
observed eddy or eddies were actually being measured throughout their lifetimes, and their apparent
expulsion of the floats from the cores of the eddies may have corresponded to the core collapse.
Lherminier et al. (2001) used the data of Gascard et al. and large-eddy simulation to show that
isobaric floats are attracted into convergence zones naturally generated by convection, showing that
floats are an efficient means of detecting those chimneys that do exist in the central gyre.
Gascard et al. (2002) carried out a binary water mass analysis and concluded that the water
structure in the eddy could have been generated by a mixture of 36% Arctic surface water (pre-
sumably from the East Greenland Current) and 64% return Atlantic water, which recirculates at
mid-depth (some 500 m) in the East Greenland Current. The surface temperature would have been
–1.61˚C and salinity 34.81, while the return Atlantic water was at –0.78˚C and 34.89. No account
was taken of increase of surface salinity due to sea ice formation.
Thus, the mechanism proposed by Gascard et al. (2002) calls for submesoscale eddies to be
generated by geostrophic adjustment and diapycnal mixing between surface polar waters and
subsurface modified Atlantic water. The mechanism by which the mixing occurs, however, was not
mentioned, and thus does not necessarily involve sinking of the surface water, but possibly lateral
mixing where water masses meet. Some kind of mixing allows Arctic surface water to be injected
into a rotating stratified water mass (the return Atlantic water), and this produces the subsurface
eddy field. The eddies are coherent and have lifetimes of a few months. Gascard et al. (2002)
speculated that such an eddy could precondition water masses for convective activity in the
following winter season: they could then form foci to concentrate further convection after erosion
of the layer of less dense water that caps the core during the summer. Such a statement suggests
a picture of an individual eddy collapsing but inducing the formation of another in the same region
during the subsequent winter.
A problem of nomenclature occurs in Gascard et al. (2002). The features are described through-
out as eddies or as submesoscale coherent vortices. The latter terminology has, up to now, been
considered specific to a kind of long-lived coherent subsurface eddy found in the Mediterranean
outflow into the Atlantic, the so-called Meddy (Armi et al. 1989). On the other hand, the term
chimney originated as a descriptor of the first such uniform, rotating coherent features seen, those
in the Gulf of Lion (Medoc Group 1970), and has been used ever since in many contexts, theoretical
and observational, to describe such features, especially in winter when they are uniform right to
the surface rather than being capped by a low-density summer water mass. Here the term chimney
is preferred and it is important that uniformity should be introduced into the terminology used.
This process can begin by tentatively defining a chimney as a “coherent submesoscale rotating
vertical column, with uniform or near-uniform temperature–salinity properties extending from the
sea surface (in winter) to depths far beyond the pycnocline.” Such a feature may appear to be like
a subsurface eddy in summer when surface warming or advection caps it, but unlike a normal eddy,
it opens up to the sea surface again in the subsequent winter.

Biological and chemical aspects

The data set acquired by ESOP on carbon cycling within the context of these deepwater formation
processes not only confirmed that the Greenland Sea is probably a net sink for atmospheric carbon
2727_C01.fm Page 6 Wednesday, June 30, 2004 11:53 AM

6 P. Wadhams

throughout the entire year (Skjelvan et al. 1999, Hood et al. 1999), but also began to provide insight
into how the biological and solubility carbon pumps interact in modern high-latitude oceans. The
results from the coordinated hydrographic, chemical, and biological studies indicate that biological
processes occurring within the Greenland Sea play a minor role, compared with simple cooling,
in setting the surface water CO2 underpressure (Skjelvan et al. 1999). However, any possible causal
relationship between the observed biological pump inefficiency and sluggish deepwater formation
remains to be confirmed through studies in the presence of deep convection.
A synthesis of CFCs and inorganic carbon (i.e., dissolved inorganic carbon, pH, and alkalinity)
data from the deep waters of the central Greenland Sea showed that in 1994–95, Greenland Sea
Deep Water was composed of only about 80% convected surface waters from the same area, with
the remaining 20% derived from the deep waters of the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean, which
are low in anthropogenic carbon (Anderson et al. 2000). Although at this point it is unclear just how
much these relative percentages shift as the strength of deep convection in the central Greenland
Gyre waxes and wanes, a reduction in the rate of deepwater formation from the surface waters of
the Greenland Sea will certainly reduce the rate of anthropogenic carbon removal into the deep ocean.
While the likely direct relationship between the efficiency of the solubility pump and deepwater
formation rates has not been controversial, speculations on the nature of biological export in the
source waters for deep convection have been distinctly contradictory. Some of the ideas that have
been generated include that these areas would behave like other pelagic regimes, with high recycling
and low export rates; that export should be enhanced in these regions because of the high seasonality
of primary production due to the variations in light levels and ice cover; and that deep convection
could carry fresh, labile dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to depth before remineralisation. There-
fore, additional ESOP studies investigated the seasonal cycles of dissolved organic (Børsheim &
Myklestad 1997) and inorganic (Miller et al. 1999) carbon, as well as sedimentation rates at 200
m (Noji et al. 1999). These three papers indicate that nearly all of the organic matter produced or
released into the surface waters, including organic carbon released from melting sea ice entering
the region through the Fram Strait (Gradinger et al. 1999), is regenerated at shallow depths rather
than exported. Indeed, sedimentation of biogenic carbon is no greater in this region than in
subtropical oligotropic gyres. All of the carbon transport rates observed during ESOP studies could
conceivably change with various climatic factors, and it would be necessary to identify such
correlations in order to draw any conclusions about how the ESOP findings may be dependent
upon the rather special hydrographic conditions (low ice volume and low deepwater formation
rates) at the time. For example, data from 1996 and 1997 indicate that although the average air–sea
gradient in CO2 during that time was larger than that during the ESOP study (Skjelvan et al. 1999),
the actual flux across the air–sea interface may not have been any greater, and was possibly even
less, due to the increased ice cover (Hood et al. 1999). Providing what may be a valuable tool for
efforts to focus future field studies and to predict changes in the biological pump efficiency in the
Greenland Sea, Slagstad et al. (1999) incorporated numerical chemical and biological carbon
cycling models into a hydrodynamic model of the Nordic Seas to create a unified ecosystem model.

Models for the convection process

The onset of convection
The classic view of open-ocean convection (e.g., Killworth 1983, Marshall & Schott 1999) is that
to predispose a region for convection there must be strong atmospheric forcing (to increase surface
density through cooling or sea ice production), and existing weak stratification beneath the surface
mixed layer (e.g., in the centre of a cyclonic gyre with domed isopycnals). One cause of the decline
in Greenland Sea convection has been assumed to be global warming, causing an increase in air
temperature and thus a reduction in thermal convection. The reduced convection could produce a
reduction in the occurrence and growth of frazil–pancake ice in the Odden ice tongue, which used
 Another Random Document on
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came thick and fast.
Her eyes still clung to his, but her lips were wordless.
“I do not understand,” he said. “For God’s sake, speak! I do not want to
lose control of myself, but I cannot forget that you have been my wife.”
These words, which moved him so that he shook visibly, made apparently
no impression upon her. Her breathing was so scant and so light as scarcely
to lift the lace upon her breast; and, near as he was to her, he could not hear
it. Was she, perhaps, unconscious? He might have thought so, but for the
deep, intense consciousness in the gaze that she fixed upon him, and the
flutter of her long-lashed lids as she shut and opened them occasionally from
the strain of that prolonged look.
Outside, the drum throbbed distantly, like the beating of a great excited
heart. The thin call of a trumpet sounded keenly like a sigh of pain. Nearer
the tramp of men and horses could be heard. But all these things only made
them feel more absolutely alone together—this man and this woman who
had once been one in marriage! With his breast heaving quickly with deep,
uneven breaths, he suddenly uttered her name in a thick whisper.
Still she remained as she had been before, motionless and wordless, while
he read her eyes. He dropped his stick, and seized her hands in both his own,
which were cold and shaking.
“Speak!” he said commandingly. “In God’s name, what do you mean,
unless it is that you love me still?”
Her hands were quiet and nerveless in his grasp, and in another instant he
would have lost control and consciousness of what he was doing. But at this
very moment the cabman called to his horse and cracked his whip, the
carriage gave a lurch forward, and they rattled rapidly away.
Recollecting himself, Harold dropped the hands which he had seized so
recklessly, and touched the springs of the curtains, which instantly flew up,
letting in the full light of day.
The fresh air which came in seemed to calm his heated blood, and he was
master of himself again.
When he turned to look at his companion, she was leaning back in
exactly the same position, only her heavy, richly fringed white lids were
dropped over her eyes.
In this way she remained quite still until the carriage stopped before the
door of her apartment. Harold, who thought that she had now really fainted,
was about to summon help from the concierge, when she opened her eyes
with a look of entire self-possession in them, got out of the cab without the
aid of his offered hand, and, bowing her thanks, without speaking walked
past him into the house, with a look of cool dismissal which made it
impossible for him to follow.
Puzzled, confused, bewildered almost to the point of frenzy, he got back
into the cab, and ordered the driver to drive in the Bois until he should tell
him to turn.
Sonia, during that same time, was shut within her room, thinking as
intensely as he. She had been able, by dint of enormous will-power, to
control herself in all other points while indulging herself in one. She had said
to herself during those crucial minutes in the cab, while she consciously
threw open the windows of her soul to this man in that clear and unrestricted
gaze, that she would neither speak nor stir, though the effort should kill her.
She found that she could best carry out this resolve by relaxing her body
utterly, while her will got every moment tenser in its strain. She had said to
herself over and over to what seemed a thousand times: “Don’t move—don’t
speak. Don’t move—don’t speak”; and the very consciousness that she was
equal to this effort made her the more free in the abandonment with which
she had let him read her heart in her eyes.
Now, as she threw her wraps aside, and paced up and down her room, a
feeling of delicious exultation possessed her, and the physical weakness
which she had lately felt was gone and forgotten. It had been a draught of
intoxicating joy simply to look at him with free and unbridled eyes. Was he
not her husband, who could not be, by any act of man, really parted from
her? What had she shown him but a woman’s feeling for her wedded lover?
Was she crazy, she wondered, that she could have done it then, and could
feel now no regret—only a wild delight—in having done it? O God, O God,
how long it was that she had shut herself off from feeling, and how good it
was to feel once more! She was alive in every nerve and pulse, as she had
not been for so long; and the throbbing of life was sweet, sweet, sweet!
Never mind about the future; she would meet it boldly, and make up some
excuse—that she had been ill or unconscious in the cab—pretend that she
had forgotten the whole thing—do anything that was needed, as to that!—
but the throbbing bliss of that one half-hour, she exulted that she had been
bold enough to make her own.
 XIX
The cours was closed at Etienne’s, but Sonia, who could not bear to face the
hours of idleness which each day must contain during the few weeks which
her aunt was still to spend in Paris, got permission to come and work in the
atelier during the afternoons. She was privileged to get her own models as
she required them, and Martha was to come also when she had time and
inclination.
The day after her encounter with Harold at the Salon, Sonia, strong in
purpose and confident in will, went to the atelier with only Inkling to protect
her and keep her company, and set resolutely to work to do some severe
drawing.
She had abundance of both time and space now, and she settled herself
with great care and deliberation, with the anatomical figures and numerous
copies of Ingres’ drawings full in view. She had not worked very long,
however, before her enthusiasm began to ebb, and she put down her charcoal
and went across to the model-throne, where she sat down with her elbows on
her knees and her chin in her hands, and fell to thinking deeply. Inkling came
and jumped up in her lap, but she pushed him away with a roughness
unusual to her, and he had to content himself with curling up on her skirt. As
she sat there, conscious of being quite alone, she was as absolutely still as
any of the customary holders of this position; but the varied expressions
which crossed and changed her face would have made any class of students
in the world despair of such a model. Sometimes she would look quite happy
for an instant, as if a thought of joy had forced its way uppermost. Then
again deep pain would come into her face, and shadows of doubt, perplexity,
and hopelessness.
She sat so for a long time. Inkling had had a deep and peaceful sleep on
the soft folds of her gown, from which he was startled by a knock at the
door. His mistress sprang up suddenly, rolling him over, and he began to
bark furiously, while Sonia, with an attitude of studious absorption, took her
place at the easel, and seized her bit of charcoal. She thought it was probably
only some boy on an errand, but she was also acutely conscious of whom it
might possibly be. So she was not entirely unprepared for the sight of Harold
appearing quickly around the edge of the old sail-cloth screen.
 He bowed with a brevity and formality which seemed to imply that she
need fear no agitating disturbance from him; but instead of standing in his
place and stating the reason of his presence, he came forward.
Inkling, wild with excitement, began a repetition of his frantic
performances of the former occasion; but his mistress, determined to have
nothing of that sort, promptly suppressed him, and he slunk away and lay
down with great meekness.
Harold, seeming to take no cognizance of the dog, came nearer, and
waited until the absorbed figure before the easel should notice him. Presently
she did this by saying formally:
“Martha is not here. She has not been here to-day.”
“She is at home. I have just left her,” he answered.
“Oh, I beg your pardon! I thought you had come to see her.”
“No; I have come to see you.”
“To see me?” lifting her eyebrows in light surprise.
“If you are at leisure.”
“I am busy, as you see; but I can talk to you as I draw, if you don’t mind.”
“If you will allow me, I will wait until your drawing is done.”
“That would take up too much of your time,” she said, laying down her
charcoal, and elaborately brushing off her fingers with her handkerchief.
“Not at all. I have nothing to do.”
“I would rather speak to you first—whatever it is you have to say—and
go on with my work afterward. I dislike to draw with people looking on.”
“In that case I will ask you to give me your attention at once. Will you,
perhaps take this seat?”
He indicated an old wooden arm-chair; but she declined it with a quick
motion, and went over and took her old place on the model-throne, lifting
Inkling to her lap. Harold seated himself on a bench directly facing her.
“I am sorry if I am annoying you,” he said; “but I cannot take the
consequences of not speaking to you now.”
“Consequences?” she said. “What consequences?”
“Consequences to you and to me. I will ask you to be kind enough to look
at me while I explain them.”
 Her eyes were fastened upon Inkling, and she kept them so, while she
began to twist his soft ears. There was a moment of intense stillness
throughout the room. Then the man, in a voice of deep concentration, spoke
her name.
“Sophie,” he said.
“Pray don’t call me by that name,” she answered quickly. “I have never
liked it, and I wish now to forget it.”
“Sonia, then, if you prefer it. I want simply to make plain the fact that I
am speaking to you, the woman who bears that name, and not to the
princess, as you are supposed to be.”
“Go on,” she said.
He was silent. She kept her eyes fixed on the dog until she was afraid that
her stubbornness would look childish, or, worse even than that, timid. Then
she looked up.
The next instant she wished that she had not, for the compelling look that
met her own did for a moment make her feel afraid. She summoned all her
force, however, and looked at him defiantly, her head raised, her eyes steady.
“I want you to explain to me what you meant yesterday,” he said.
“What I meant yesterday? What do you mean?”
“What you meant yesterday, driving home in the cab.”
“What I meant yesterday by driving home in the cab? I suppose my
meaning was the obvious one—that I was tired and ill, and that my own
carriage was not there.”
The timidity which she had felt before grew now into positive terror, as
she felt the masterful force of this man’s power over her. So strong was her
sense of it that she felt absolutely reckless of what she said or did, so long as
she was able to resist him.
“You will not move me, or change my intention—my determination to
get an answer to my question. Your evasion of it is childish as well as
useless.”
“I will be childish if I choose. Who is to prevent me?” she said defiantly.
“I will. I have no intention of submitting to any such childishness now.
You are a woman, and you are the only woman who exists for me. In that
character I mean to have your answer to my question.”
 His words made her heart throb quick, with a feeling outside of the terror
of self-betrayal by which she was possessed. She gave no outward sign,
however, as she looked down, and began once more to pull at Inkling’s ears.
Before she realized what he was doing, Harold had bent forward, and
lifting the dog from her lap, he set him on the floor, with a shove that sent
him half-way across the room. As the little creature ran off frightened,
Harold turned to the woman facing him, and forcibly took both her hands in
his.
She jerked them from him with a powerful wrench, as she sprang to her
feet, retreating a few paces until she was stopped by some benches and
easels huddled together on that side of the room.
“Don’t touch me!” she cried, in a voice of real terror.
He let his hands drop to his sides, but he followed, and stood very close
to her, as he said:
“You had better answer me, and let me have my way. I am not to be
turned now. This interview between us must be final, and I promise you that
after it you shall be safe from any persecution from me. Now, however, the
present moment is my own. I have you in my power—and that power I
intend to use!”
“An honorable and manly thing to say!” she panted, her eyes blazing and
her lips curled. “Do you mean me to understand that you would use force to
make me comply with your wish?”
“I mean just that,” he answered, bending over her with eyes that gave her
the feeling of a physical touch. “I will prevent your leaving this room until
you have honestly and fairly spoken to me, and have either confirmed or
denied what your eyes plainly said to me yesterday.”
“You are cowardly and cruel!” she cried. “You are taking a mean
advantage of me! I was ill yesterday. I was half unconscious—”
“You may have been ill,” he interrupted. “I know indeed that you were,
and that physical weakness may have led to self-betrayal; but you were not
unconscious. Far from it. You were never more acutely conscious in your life
than during those long moments when you looked at me with love.”
“I deny it!” she cried angrily.
“Useless!” he answered. “It is not to be denied.”
 She tried to draw farther away, but the barricade of easels stopped her.
Then he himself stepped backward, and put some feet of space between
them.
“I cannot bear to see you shrink from me,” he said. “You will have to
forgive a persistence that may seem to you brutal; but fate has put this
opportunity into my hands, and I’d be a fool not to use it.”
“And what do you expect to get from it?” she asked.
“An answer in plain words to this question, Do you, or do you not, love
me?”
“I do not!” she cried hotly; but her breast was heaving so, her heart was
throbbing so, that she could scarcely catch her breath; and she felt that not
for all the world dared she look him in the face.
“Your eyes yesterday contradicted your words of to-day,” he said. “I will
not be content until I have had both. So help me God, you are not going to
trifle with me now! I will make you look at me, and confirm with your eyes
the words you have just spoken, or I’ll have you for my wife again!”
He caught her in his arms, and drew her close against him. She opened
her mouth as if to scream, but he laid his palm upon it, not forgetting, for all
his strength, to touch her gently.
“Oh, my darling, my precious one,” he said, “don’t call out for protection
from me, as if I were your enemy! Surely you know that I would die by
torture before I would hurt you—body or soul. But something—a wicked
pride, perhaps—is making you struggle against the truth; and, for your sake
as well as for my own, I must make a fight for it. Look! I offer you the
chance. If you can look me in the face, and say with eyes and lips together,
‘Harold, I do not love you,’ then you are as free as air. If you can do that, I
will go, and never cross your path again.”
He had taken his hand from her mouth, for fear her panting breaths would
cease. He could feel the violent beating of her heart against his side. An
overwhelming tenderness and pity for her filled him, and his arm, relaxing
its stern pressure, drew her close, with an embrace whose only constraint
was that of love. Her ear was very close to him, and he spoke to her in the
lowest whispers.
“Dear one,” he said, “what is it you are fighting against, if it be not the
coming back of love and joy?”
 He could not see her eyes. He did not wish to see them yet. This waiting
was bliss, because there was hope in it.
She had ceased to struggle, and was quiet in his arms. They stood so,
many seconds, their hearts throbbing against each other, their cheeks
pressed. In the unspeakable sweetness of his nearness, Harold felt against his
face the moisture of a tear.
“What is it?” he whispered. “You are crying! For God’s sake, tell me
why!”
A gentle little head-shake answered him; but she made no motion to draw
herself away, and he, enraptured, held her close.
“There is nothing—nothing that you cannot tell to me,” he said, still in
that whisper that thrilled the silence of the room. “Perhaps you do not
understand. Listen, and I will make it all plain. I loved you then. I love you
now. I have loved you through all the pain and silence in between. Oh,
dearest, never dream but that you are still my own—wholly and
unchangeably as I am yours—if only you love me!”
She kept so still that he was puzzled. He made a motion to draw back his
head and look at her, but she put up her hand and pressed his cheek still
closer against hers. He passionately wished that she would speak; but there
was no sound except that fluttered breathing, no motion but that little tremor
which he felt against his side. She was weakening, weakening, weakening—
he was sure of this; but he was in such an absolute terror of
misunderstanding her mood that he dared not move or speak.
As they stood there so, he felt a sudden tightening of the pressure of her
arms. They strained him close against her. His heart leaped; but he was not
sure. There was something that alarmed him even in that clasp of love.
“Are you happy?” he whispered in the lowest murmur. But with a sudden
wrench she tore herself away from him, and when he tried to follow, waved
him back with a gesture which he could not disregard.
“Happy!” she said in a voice that mocked the thought, as she wrung her
hands together, and then, for a moment, hid her face in the curve of one
tensely bended arm. “What have I to do with happiness?” she cried out,
flinging wide her arms, and looking upward, as if appealing to some
invisible presence rather than to him or to herself. “I had it given to me once
in boundless measure, and I played with it, and tossed it from me. It was
lightly and easily done, and now it cannot be undone.”
 Harold stood where her imperious gesture had stopped him, and looked at
her in consternation.
“What do you mean?” he said. “You will not try now to deny your love
for me! You have owned it in that close embrace which can mean nothing
but—”
“Good-by!” she interrupted him. “It means inevitable parting. You must
go, or, if not, I must fly to some place where we cannot meet again.”
“But, dearest, we cannot part. I have told you how I love you in plain
words. You have told me the same, without the need of words.”
She looked at him,—a deep, inscrutable gaze,—and shook her head.
“I have had perfect love once,” she said, “and from you—the one man
whose love could ever have any meaning for me—love that included perfect
trust, perfect confidence, perfect respect. I refuse to take from you a smaller
thing. It is easier to give you up than to face that thought.”
“But Sonia! Darling! You have got that love! I tell you it is just the
same!”
She shook her head.
“It cannot be,” she said. “You would feel that what had been once might
be again. You could never feel secure for even one moment. I could not bear
it. You must remember what I felt in that one embrace. Oh, Harold, I want
you to remember that! And now you must let me go.”
“Go?” he said. “Where should you go, but here to me—to your right
place, your home, your husband?”
At this last word she gave a sharp cry. She had been standing
unsupported, and now a sudden trembling seized her, and she half tottered
toward a chair. In an instant he was at her side, his arms about her, fast and
sure. It was too sweet, this strong and tender holding up of her weak body.
She let it be, but she was motionless and wordless in his arms.
“My own child,” he said, “there can be no question as to our future now.
It was all a mistake—the past! If we acknowledge it—”
“Oh, the past, the past!” she said. “I can never get away from it. We have
lost two years. No matter if we had the whole future of time and eternity, we
could never get those back—and it was I that did it! It is good of you to say
that you forgive me; but I—oh, I never can forgive myself! You never can
believe in me again. I dare not ask or look for it. I don’t deserve it. You
would be wrong and foolish if you did.”
“Then wrong and foolish I will be!” he said. “I will believe in you again
and again, forever! You have forgotten something, Sonia. There is no
question of judgment between you and me, because you are myself. Do you
not feel that that is so?”
She did not answer, and he said again, in that compelling tone she knew
so well:
“Do you not feel it so, my wife?”
She raised to his, unswervingly, eyes that were clear as stars after their
recent tears. She unveiled her soul to him as daringly as she had done
yesterday, and the message that they gave him was the same—abundant,
free, unstinted love, without reserve or fear.
He drew her quickly closer, still holding her eyes with his.
“Speak! Tell me!” he said.
Then voice and look together spoke:
“I love you, Harold—my husband!”
He took the dear words from her lips with his.

Afterward, when they were seated together on the model-throne, they

were startled by a timid little tinkling, and as they both with a sense of
compunction called to Inkling to come, and he sprang up between them
quivering with joy, and making frantic efforts to lick both their faces at once,
their laughs and struggles made such a commotion that they did not hear the
door open, admitting Martha.
She half crossed the room, and then stood still, transfixed with
amazement, till they drew her down between them and told her everything.

“So you are not a princess, after all!” said Martha.

“Oh, yes I am,” Sonia answered quickly. “I’m ‘The Happy Princess’—
and this is my Prince!”
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINCESS
SONIA ***

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