5.

Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

The mole is the key concept for chemical calculations

DEFINITION: The mole is the amount of substance in grams that has the
same number of particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12.

DEFINITION: Relative atomic mass is the average mass of one atom

compared to one twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon-12

Molar Mass for a compound can be calculated by adding

DEFINITION: Molar Mass is the mass in grams of 1 up the mass numbers(from the periodic table) of each
mole of a substance and is given the unit of g mol-1 element in the compound
eg CaCO3 = 40.1 + 12.0 +16.0 x3 = 100.1

For most calculations we will do at A-level we will use the following 3 equations
Learn these equations carefully and what units to use in them.

1. For pure solids, liquids and gases 2. For gases 3. For solutions

amount = mass Gas Volume (dm3)= amount x 24 Concentration = amount

MolarMass volume
This equation give the volume of a
Unit of Mass: grams Unit of concentration: mol dm-3 or M
gas at room pressure (1atm) and
Unit of amount : mol Unit of Volume: dm3
room temperature 25oC. Converting volumes

It is usually best to give cm3  dm3 ÷ 1000

your answers to 3sf cm3  m3 ÷ 1000 000
dm3  m3 ÷ 1000

For pure solids, liquids and gases Example 1: Calculate the amount, in mol, in 35.0g of
CuSO4
mass
Amount in mol = amount = mass/Mr
Mr
= 35/ (63.5 + 32 +16 x4)
Unit of mass: grams = 0.219 mol
Unit of amount : mol

Many questions will involve changes of units

1000 mg =1g
1000 g =1kg
1000kg = 1 tonne
Significant Figures
Give your answers to the same
number of significant figures as the
Example 2: Calculate the amount, in mol, in 75.0mg of number of significant figures for the
CaSO4.2H2O data you given in a question. If you
amount = mass/Mr are given a mixture of different
significant figures, use the smallest
= 0.075/ (40 + 32.0 +16.0 x4 + 18.0x2)
= 4.36x10-4 mol

N Goalby chemrevise.org 1
Hydrated salt

A Hydrated salt contains water of crystallisation Example 3

Na2SO4 . xH2O has a molar mass of 322.1, Calculate
.
Cu(NO3)2 6H2O the value of x
hydrated copper (II) nitrate(V). Molar mass xH2O = 322.1 – (23x2 + 32.1 + 16x4)
= 180
Cu(NO3)2 X = 180/18
Anhydrous copper (II) nitrate(V). =10

This method could be used for measuring mass loss in various

Heating in a crucible thermal decomposition reactions and also for mass gain when
reacting magnesium in oxygen.

The lid improves the accuracy of the

The water of crystallisation in calcium sulfate crystals can be
experiment as it prevents loss of solid
removed as water vapour by heating as shown in the following
from the crucible but should be loose
equation.
fitting to allow gas to escape.
CaSO4.xH2O(s) → CaSO4(s) + xH2O(g)
Method.
•Weigh an empty clean dry crucible and lid .
•Add 2g of hydrated calcium sulfate to the crucible and weigh
again
•Heat strongly with a Bunsen for a couple of minutes
•Allow to cool
•Weigh the crucible and contents again
•Heat crucible again and reweigh until you reach a constant
mass ( do this to ensure reaction is complete).

Large amounts of hydrated calcium sulfate, such as 50g,

should not be used in this experiment as the
decomposition is like to be incomplete.
Small amounts the solid, such as
0.100 g, should not be used in
The crucible needs to be dry otherwise a wet crucible this experiment as errors in
would give an inaccurate result. It would cause mass loss weighing are too high.
to be too large as water would be lost when heating.

Example 4. 3.51 g of hydrated zinc sulfate were heated and 1.97 g of

anhydrous zinc sulphate were obtained.
Calculate the value of the integer x in ZnSO4.xH2O

Calculate the mass of H2O = 3.51 – 1.97 = 1.54g

Calculate moles Calculate moles = 1.54
= 1.97 of H2O
of ZnSO4 161.5 18

= 0.0122 =0.085

Calculate ratio of mole

of ZnSO4 to H2O = 0.0122 = 0.085
0.0122 0.0122
=7
=1
X=7

N Goalby chemrevise.org 2
Avogadro's Constant

The mole is the amount of substance in Avogadro's Constant

grams that has the same number of There are 6.02 x 1023 atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12. Therefore
particles as there are atoms in 12 grams explained in simpler terms 'One mole of any specified entity
of carbon-12. contains 6.02 x 1023 of that entity':

1 mole of copper atoms will contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms

Avogadro's Constant can be
1 mole of carbon dioxide molecules will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules
used for atoms, molecules and
1 mole of sodium ions will contain 6.02 x 1023 ions
ions

No of particles = amount of substance (in mol) X Avogadro's constant

Example 5: Calculate the number of atoms Example 6 : Calculate the number of chloride ions in a
in a 6.00 g sample of tin metal. 25.0 cm3 of a solution of magnesium chloride of
amount = mass/Ar concentration 0.400 mol dm-3
= 6/ 118.7 amount= concentration x Volume
= 0.05055 mol MgCl2 = 0.400 x 0.025

Number atoms = amount x 6.02 x 1023 = 0.0100 mol

There are two moles of
= 0.05055 x 6.02 x 1023 Amount of chloride ions = 0.0100 x2 chloride ions for every
= 3.04 x1022 = 0.0200 one mole of MgCl2
Number ions of Cl- = amount x 6.02 x 1023
= 0.0200 x 6.02 x 1023
= 1.204 x1022

Density calculations are usually used with pure liquids to work out the mass
Density
from a measured volume. It can also be used with solids and gases.

mass Density is usually given in g cm-3

density =
volume Care needs to be taken if different units are
used.

Example 7 : Calculate the number of molecules of ethanol in Example 8: There are 980mol of pure gold in a bar
a 0.500 dm3 of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) liquid. measuring 10 cm by 20 cm by 50 cm. Calculate the
The density of ethanol is 0.789 g cm-3 density of gold in kg dm−3
Mass = amount x Mr
Mass = density x volume
ethanol = 980 x 197
= 0.789 x 500
= 193060 g
= 394.5 g
= 193.06 kg
amount = mass/Mr
Volume = 10x20x50
= 394.5/ 46.0
= 10 000cm3
= 8.576 mol = 10 dm3
Number of molecules= amount x 6.022 x 1023 density = mass/volume
= 8.576 x 6.022 x 1023 = 193/10
= 19.3 kg dm-3
= 5.16 x1024(to 3 sig fig)

N Goalby chemrevise.org 3
Empirical Formula
Definition: An empirical formula is the simplest ratio of atoms of each element in the compound.

General method
The same method can be
Step 1 : Divide each mass (or % mass) by the atomic mass of the element used for the following types
Step 2 : For each of the answers from step 1 divide by the smallest one of of data:
those numbers. 1. masses of each element
in the compound
Step 3: sometimes the numbers calculated in step 2 will need to be multiplied
up to give whole numbers. 2. percentage mass of each
element in the compound
These whole numbers will be the empirical formula.

Example 9 : Calculate the empirical formula for a compound that contains

1.82g of K, 5.93g of I and 2.24g of O
Step1: Divide each mass by the atomic mass of the element
K = 1.82 / 39.1 I = 5.93/126.9 O = 2.24/16
= 0.0465 mol = 0.0467mol = 0.14 mol
Step 2 For each of the answers from step 1 divide by the smallest one of those numbers.
K = 0.0465/0.0465 I = 0.0467/0.0465 O = 0.14 / 0.0465
=1 =1 =3
Empirical formula =KIO3

Molecular formula from empirical formula

Definition: A molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in the compound.

From the relative molecular mass (Mr) work out how many times the mass of the empirical
formula fits into the Mr.

Example 10 : Deduce the molecular formula for the

compound with an empirical formula of C3H6O and The Mr does not need to be exact to turn an
a Mr of 116 empirical formula into the molecular formula
because the molecular formula will be a
C3H6O has a mass of 58 whole number multiple of the empirical
formula
The empirical formula fits twice into Mr of 116
So molecular formula is C6H12O2

N Goalby chemrevise.org 4
 Concentration of Solutions

A solution is a mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. In chemistry we most commonly use
water as the solvent to form aqueous solutions. The solute can be a solid, liquid or a gas.

Molar concentration can be measured for solutions. This is calculated by dividing the amount in
moles of the solute by the volume of the solution. The volume is measure is dm3. The unit of molar
concentration is mol dm-3 ; it can also be called molar using symbol M

Concentration = amount Unit of concentration: mol dm-3 or M

volume Unit of volume: dm3

Converting volumes

A m3 is equivalent to a cube A dm3 is equivalent to a cube A cm3 is equivalent to a cube

100cmx100cmx100cm= 1000000 cm3 10cmx10cmx10cm= 1000 cm3 1cmx1cmx1cm

1dm3 = 1litre 1cm3 = 1 mL

100cm
10cm
10cm 1cm
1cm
10cm 1cm
100cm

100cm 1cm3
1dm3 or 1 litre

1m3

1 m3 = 1000 dm3 or 1000 L 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 or 1000 mL

To convert m3 into dm3 multiply by 1000 To convert cm3 into dm3 divide by 1000

cm3  dm3 ÷ 1000

cm3  m3 ÷ 1000 000
dm3  m3 ÷ 1000

Example 11 Calculate the concentration of solution Example 12 Calculate the concentration of solution
made by dissolving 5.00 g of Na2CO3 in 250 cm3 water. made by dissolving 10 kg of Na2CO3 in 0.50 m3 water.
amount = mass/Mr amount = mass/Mr
= 5 / (23.0 x2 + 12 +16 x3) = 10 000 / (23.0 x2 + 12 +16 x3)
= 0.0472 mol = 94.2 mol
conc= amount/volume conc= amount/volume
= 0.0472 / 0.25 = 94.2 / 500
= 0.189 mol dm-3 = 0.19 mol dm-3

N Goalby chemrevise.org 5
 Mass Concentration

The concentration of a solution can also be To turn concentration measured in mol dm-3 into
measured in terms of mass of solute per volume concentration measured in g dm-3 multiply by Mr of the
of solution substance
conc in g dm-3 = conc in mol dm-3 x Mr
Mass concentration = mass The concentration in g dm-3 is the same as the mass of
volume solute dissolved in 1dm3

Unit of mass concentration: g dm-3

Unit of Mass g
Unit of Volume: dm3

Ions dissociating
When soluble ionic solids dissolve in water they will dissociate into separate ions. This can lead to the
concentration of ions differing from the concentration of the solute.

Example 13
If 5.86 g (0.1 mol) of sodium chloride (NaCl) is dissolved in 1 dm3 of
water then the concentration of sodium chloride solution would be
0.1mol dm-3 . NaCl(s) +aq  Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
However the 0.1mol sodium chloride would split up and form 0.1
mol of sodium ions and 0.1 mol of chloride ions. The concentration 0.1mol 0.1mol 0.1mol
of sodium ions is therefore 0.1 mol dm-3 and the concentration of
chloride ions is also 0.1 mol dm-3
Example 14
If 9.53g (0.1 mol) of magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is dissolved in 1
dm3 of water then the concentration of magnesium chloride solution
(MgCl2 aq) would be 0.1 mol dm-3 . MgCl2(s) +aq  Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
However the 0.1 mol magnesium chloride would split up and form
0.1mol 0.1mol 0.2mol
0.1 mol of magnesium ions and 0.2 mol of chloride ions. The
concentration of magnesium ions is therefore 0.1 mol dm-3 and the
concentration of chloride ions is now 0.2 mol dm-3

Making a solution

• Weigh the sample bottle containing the required mass of Alternatively the known mass of
solid on a 2 dp balance solid in the weighing bottle could be
• Transfer to beaker and reweigh sample bottle transferred to beaker, washed and
• Record the difference in mass washings added to the beaker.

• Add 100 cm3 of distilled water to the beaker. Use a glass

rod to stir to help dissolve the solid.

•Sometimes the substance may not dissolve well in cold

water so the beaker and its contents could be heated gently
until all the solid had dissolved.

• Pour solution into a 250 cm3 graduated flask via a funnel. Remember to fill so the bottom of the
• Rinse beaker and funnel and add washings from the meniscus sits on the line on the neck of
beaker and glass rod to the volumetric flask. the flask. With dark liquids like potassium
• make up to the mark with distilled water using a dropping manganate it can be difficult to see the
pipette for last few drops. meniscus.
• Invert flask several times to ensure uniform solution.

N Goalby chemrevise.org 6
 Dilutions
Diluting a solution
Using a volumetric pipette is more
accurate than a measuring cylinder
•Pipette 25cm3 of original solution into a 250cm3 because it has a smaller uncertainty
volumetric flask
•make up to the mark with distilled water using a Use a teat pipette to make up to the mark
dropping pipette for last few drops. in volumetric flask to ensure volume of
• Invert flask several times to ensure uniform solution. solution accurately measured and one
doesn’t go over the line

Calculating Dilutions
Diluting a solution will not change the amount of moles of solute present but increase the volume of
solution and hence the concentration will lower
amount= volume x concentration
If amount of moles does not change then
Original volume x original concentration = new diluted volume x new diluted concentration

so new diluted concentration = original concentration x original volume

new diluted volume

The new diluted volume will be equal to the original volume of solution added + the volume of water added.

Example 15
50 cm3 of water are added to 150 cm3 of a 0.20 mol dm-3 NaOH solution. Calculate the concentration of
the diluted solution.
new diluted concentration = original concentration x original volume
new diluted volume
new diluted concentration = 0.20 x 0.150
0.200
= 0.15 mol dm-3

Example 16
Calculate the volume of water in cm3 that must be added to dilute 5.00 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm−3 hydrochloric
acid so that it has a concentration of 0.050 mol dm−3

Amount in mol original solution = conc x vol

= 1.00 x 0.005
= 0.005
New volume = amount /conc
= 0.005/0.05
= 0.1dm3 = 100cm3

Volume of water added = 100-5 = 95cm3

N Goalby chemrevise.org 7
Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation applies to all gases and mixtures of PV = nRT
gases. If a mixture of gases is used the value n will be the total
moles of all gases in the mixture. Unit of Pressure (P):Pa
Unit of Volume (V): m3
The biggest problems students have with this equation is choosing Unit of Temp (T): K
and converting to the correct units, so pay close attention to the units. n= moles
R = 8.31 JK–1mol–1

Example 17: Calculate the mass of Cl2 gas that has a pressure of Converting temperature
100 kPa, temperature 20 oC , volume 500 cm3. (R = 8.31)
oC  K add 273
moles = PV/RT
100 kPa = 100 000 Pa
= 100 000 x 0.0005 / (8.31 x 293) 20oC = 20+273= 293K
= 0.0205 mol 500 cm3 = 0.0005 m3

Mass = amount x Mr
= 0.0205 x (35.5 x2)
= 1.46 g

Example 18: 0.150 g of a volatile liquid was injected into a sealed gas syringe. The gas syringe was placed in an oven at
70 oC at a pressure of 100 kPa and a volume of 80 cm3 was measured. Calculate the Mr of the volatile liquid (R = 8.31)

moles = PV/RT 100 kPa = 100 000 Pa

= 100 000 x 0.00008 / (8.31 x 343) 80 cm3 = 0.00008 m3
= 0.00281 mol

Mr = mass/amount
= 0.15 / 0.00281
= 53.4 g mol-1

Using a gas syringe

Gas syringes can be used for a variety of experiments where the volume of a gas is measured, possibly to
work out moles of gas or to follow reaction rates.

The volume of a gas depends on pressure Make sure you don’t leave
and temperature so when recording volume gaps in your diagram where
it is important to note down the temperature gas could escape
and pressure of the room.

Moles of gas can be calculated from gas

volume (and temperature and pressure)
using ideal gas equation PV = nRT

If drawing a gas syringe make

Potential errors in using a gas syringe
sure you draw it with some
•gas escapes before bung inserted
measurement markings on the
•syringe sticks
barrel to show measurements
• some gases like carbon dioxide or sulphur
can be made.
dioxide are soluble in water so the true amount of
gas is not measured.

N Goalby chemrevise.org 8
Changing the conditions of a gas

Questions may involve the same amount of gas under different conditions.

Example 19
40 cm3 of oxygen and 60 cm3 of carbon dioxide, each at 298 K and 100 kPa, were placed into an
evacuated flask of volume 0.50 dm3. Calculate the pressure of the gas mixture in the flask at 298 K.

There are two approaches to solving this

1. Work out amount in mol of gas using ideal gas equation then put back into ideal gas
equation with new conditions
P1V1 = P2V2
2. Or combine the equation n= PV/RT as on right
T1 T2
Can do this as moles of gas do not change

As temperature is the same can make the above equation P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 /V2
= 100000 x 1x 10-4 / 5x10-4
= 20 000Pa

Reacting Volumes of Gas

Equal volumes of any gases measured under the same 1 mole of any gas at room
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal pressure (1atm) and room
numbers of molecules (or atoms if the gas in monatomic) temperature 25oC will have the
volume of 24dm3
Volumes of gases reacting in a balanced equation
can be calculated by simple ratio

Example 20 500 cm3 of methane is combusted at 1atm and 300K. Calculate the volume of oxygen
needed to react and calculate the volume of CO2 given off under the same conditions.

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

1 mole 2 mole 1 mole

500cm3 1dm3 500cm3

Simply multiply
gas volume x2

Example 21 An important reaction which occurs in the catalytic converter of a car is

2CO(g) + 2NO(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g)
In this reaction, when 500 cm3 of CO reacts with 500 cm3 of NO at 650 °C and at 1 atm.
Calculate the total volume of gases produced at the same temperature and pressure

2CO(g) + 2NO(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g) total volume of gases produced = 750cm3

500cm3 500cm3 500cm3 250cm3

N Goalby chemrevise.org 9
Converting quantities between different substances using a balanced equation Typically we are given a quantity
of one substance and are asked
N2 + 3H2  2NH3 to work out a quantity for
another substance in the
The balancing (stoichiometric) numbers are mole ratios reaction. Any of the above three
e.g. 1 mol of N2 reacts with 3 mol of H2 to produce 2mol of NH3 equations can be used.

Step 3
Step 1:
Step 2: Convert amount, in mol, of
Use one of the above 3 equations to
Use balanced equation to second substance into quantity
convert any given quantity into
convert amount in mol of initial question asked for using
amount in mol
substance into amount in mol of relevant equation
Mass amount
second substance e.g. amount ,Mr  mass
Volume of gas  amount
Amount gas  vol gas
Conc and vol of solution  amount
amount, vol solution  conc

Example 22: Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced Example 23: Calculate the mass of copper that reacts
by heating 5.50 g of sodium hydrogencarbonate. completely with 150 cm3 of 1.60 mol dm-3 nitric acid.
2NaHCO3  Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 3Cu + 8HNO3  3Cu(NO3 )2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Step 1: Calculate amount, in mol, of nitric acid
Step 1: Calculate amount, in mol, of sodium
amount = conc x vol
hydrogencarbonate
= 1.6 x 0.15
amount = mass / Mr
= 0.24 mol
= 5.5 /84
= 0.0655 mol
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of Cu
Step 2: use balanced equation to give amount in mol 8 moles HNO3 : 3 moles Cu
of CO2 So 0.24 HNO3 : 0.09 (0.24 x 3/8) mol Cu
2 moles NaHCO3 : 1 moles CO2
So 0.0655 HNO3 : 0.0328mol CO2
Step 3: Calculate mass of Cu
Step 3: Calculate mass of CO2 Mass = amount x Mr
Mass = amount x Mr = 0.09 x 63.5
= 0.0328 x 44.0 =5.71 g
=1.44 g

Example 24: Calculate the total volume of gas produced in Example 25: 23.6cm3 of H2SO4 neutralised 25.0 cm3 of
dm3 at 333K and 100kPa when 0.651 g of magnesium 0.150 mol dm-3 NaOH. Calculate the concentration of the H2SO4
nitrate is heated. H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 +2H2O
2Mg (NO3)2 (s) 2 MgO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

Step 1: work out moles of magnesium nitrate Step 1: work out moles of sodium hydroxide
Moles = mass / Mr amount = conc x vol
= 0.651 / 148.3 = 0.150 x 0.025
= 0. 00375 mol
= 0.00439 mol
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of gas Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of H2SO4
produced 2 moles NaOH : 1 moles H2SO4
2 moles Mg (NO3)2 : 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) ie 5moles of gas So 0.00375 NaOH : 0.001875 mol H2SO4
So 0.00439 Mg (NO3)2 : 0.01098( 0.00439 x 5/2) moles
gas Step 3 Calculate concentration of H2SO4
conc= amount/volume
Step 3: Calculate volume of gas
= 0.001875 / 0.0236
Volume = nRT/P
= (0.01098 x 8.31 x 333 )/ 100000 = 0.0794 mol dm-3
= 0.000304 m3
= 0.303 dm3

N Goalby chemrevise.org 10
Titrations

The method for carrying out the titration Safety precautions

•rinse equipment (burette with acid, pipette with alkali, conical Acids and alkalis are corrosive
flask with distilled water) (at low concentrations acids are
•pipette 25 cm3 of alkali into conical flask irritants)
•touch surface of alkali with pipette ( to ensure correct amount Wear eye protection and gloves
is added) If spilled immediately wash affected
•adds acid solution from burette parts after spillage
•make sure the jet space in the burette is filled with acid
•add a few drops of indicator and refer to colour change at end If substance is unknown treat it as
point potentially toxic and wear gloves.
•phenolphthalein [pink (alkali) to colourless (acid): end point pink
colour just disappears] [use if NaOH is used]
•methyl orange [yellow (alkali) to red (acid): end point orange] A conical flask is used in preference
[use if HCl is used] to a beaker because it is easier to
•use a white tile underneath the flask to help observe the colour swirl the mixture in a conical flask
change without spilling the contents.
•add acid to alkali whilst swirling the mixture and add acid
dropwise at end point Distilled water can be added to the
•note burette reading before and after addition of acid conical flask during a titration to wash
•repeats titration until at least 2 concordant results are the sides of the flask so that all the
obtained- two readings within 0.1 of each other acid on the side is washed into the
reaction mixture to react with the alkali.
There will be a small amount of the liquid left in the pipette when It does not affect the titration reading
it has been emptied. Do not force this out. The pipette is as water does not react with the
calibrated to allow for it. reagents or change the number of
moles of acid added.
If the jet space in the burette is not filled properly prior to
commencing the titration it will lead to errors if it then fills Only distilled water should be used to
during the titration, leading to a larger than expected titre wash out conical flasks between
reading. titrations because it does not add and
extra moles of reagents
Working out average titre results
Only make an average of the concordant titre results

lf 2 or 3 values are within 0.10cm3

Recording results
and therefore concordant or close
•Results should be clearly recorded in a table
then we can say results are accurate
•Result should be recorded in full (i.e. both initial and final
and reproducible and the titration
readings)
technique is good/ consistent
•Record titre volumes to 2dp (0.05 cm3)

Titrating mixtures
Testing batches If titrating a mixture to work out the concentration
In quality control it will be necessary to do of an active ingredient it is necessary to consider
titrations/testing on several samples as the if the mixture contains other substances that
amount/concentration of the chemical being tested may have acid base properties.
vary between samples. If they don’t have acid base properties we can
titrate with confidence.

N Goalby chemrevise.org
11
 More complicated titration calculations- taking samples

Example 26: A 25.0 cm3 sample of vinegar was diluted in a 250 Common Titration Equations
cm3 volumetric flask. This was then put in a burette and 23.10
cm3 of the diluted vinegar neutralised 25.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol CH3CO2H + NaOH  CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O
dm-3 NaOH. Calculate the concentration of the vinegar in g dm-3
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 +2H2O
CH3CO2H + NaOH  CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O
HCl + NaOH  NaCl +H2O
Step 1: Calculate amount, in mol, of sodium hydroxide
amount = conc x vol
NaHCO3 + HCl  NaCl + CO2 + H2O
= 0.10 x 0.025 Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
= 0. 00250 mol
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of CH3CO2H Example 28
1 moles NaOH : 1 moles CH3CO2H 950 mg of impure calcium carbonate tablet was crushed. 50.0
So 0.00250 NaOH : 0.00250 moles CH3CO2H cm3 of 1.00 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, an excess, was then
added. After the tablet had reacted, the mixture was
Step 3 Calculate concentration of diluted CH3CO2H in 23.1 transferred to a volumetric flask. The volume was made up to
(and 250 cm3)in moldm-3 exactly 100 cm3 with distilled water. 10.0 cm3 of this solution
conc= amount/volume was titrated with 11.1cm3 of 0.300 mol dm–3 sodium
hydroxide solution.
= 0.00250 / 0.0231 Calculate the percentage of CaCO3 by mass in the tablet
= 0.108 mol dm-3 1. Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide used
Step 4 Calculate concentration of original concentrated amount = conc x vol
CH3CO2H in 25 cm3 in moldm-3 = 0.30 x 0.0111
conc = 0.108 x 10 = 1.08 mol dm-3 = 0. 00333 mol

Step 5 Calculate concentration of CH3CO2H in original 2. Work out number of moles of hydrochloric acid left in 10.0 cm3
concentrated 25 cm3 in gdm-3 use balanced equation to give moles of HCl
conc in g dm-3 = conc in mol dm-3 x Mr 1 mol NaOH : 1 mol HCl
So 0.00333 NaOH : 0.00333 moles HCl
= 1.08 x 60 = 64.8 g dm-3
3. Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid left in
100 cm3 of solution
Example 27. An unknown metal carbonate reacts with
hydrochloric acid according to the following equation. Moles in 100cm3 = 0.00333 x10
M2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2MCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) =0.0333
A 3.96 g sample of M2CO3 was dissolved in distilled water to
make 250 cm3 of solution. A 25.0 cm3 portion of this solution 4. Calculate the number of moles of HCl that reacted with
required 32.8 cm3 of 0.175 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid for the indigestion tablet.
complete reaction. Calculate the Mr of M2CO3 and identify the
In original HCl 50.0 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm–3 there are 0.05mol
metal M
1. Calculate the number of moles of HCl used moles of HCl that =0.05 -0.0333
amount = conc x vol reacted with the =0.0167
= 0.175 x 0.0328 indigestion tablet.
= 0. 00574 mol
2. Work out number of moles of M2CO3 in 25.0 cm3 put in conical 5 Use balanced equation to give moles of CaCO3
flask CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
use balanced equation to give moles of M2CO3 2 mol HCl : 1 mol CaCO3
2 mol HCl : 1 mol M2CO3 So 0.0167 HCl : 0.00835 moles CaCO3
So 0. 00574 NaOH : 0.00287 moles M2CO3
6. Calculate the mass of CaCO3 in original tablet
3. Calculate the number of moles M2CO3 acid in original 250 cm3
of solution mass= amount x Mr
Moles in 250cm3 = 0.00287 x10 = 0.00835 x 100 = 0.835 g
=0.0287
Percentage of
4. work out the Mr of M2CO3 = 0.835/0.950 x100
CaCO3 by mass in
Mr= mass / amount the tablet
= 87.9 %
= 3.96/ 0.0287= 138.0
5. Work out Ar of M = (138-12- 16x3)
2
Ar of M = 39 M= potassium

N Goalby chemrevise.org 12
Uncertainty
Readings and Measurements

Readings Measurements The uncertainty of a reading (one judgement) is at

the values found from a the values taken as the least ±0.5 of the smallest scale reading.
single judgement when difference between the The uncertainty of a measurement (two
using a piece of equipment judgements of two judgements) is at least ±1 of the smallest scale
values (e.g. using a reading.
burette in a titration)

Calculating Apparatus Uncertainties

Each type of apparatus has a sensitivity uncertainty To decrease the apparatus uncertainties
you can either decrease the sensitivity
•balance  0.001 g uncertainty by using apparatus with a
•volumetric flask  0.1 cm3 greater resolution (finer scale divisions )
•25 cm3 pipette  0.1 cm3 or you can increase the size of the
•burette  0.05 cm3 measurement made.

Calculate the percentage error for each piece of equipment used by Uncertainty of a measurement using
a burette. If the burette used in the
% uncertainty =  uncertainty x 100 titration had an uncertainty for each
Measurement made on apparatus reading of  0.05 cm3 then during a
titration two readings would be taken
e.g. for pipette so the uncertainty on the titre volume
% uncertainty = 0.05/ 25 x 100 would be  0.10 cm3 .

To calculate the maximum percentage apparatus uncertainty in the

final result add all the individual equipment uncertainties together.

Reducing uncertainties in a titration If looking at a series of measurements

in an investigation the experiments
Replacing measuring cylinders with pipettes or burettes which have with the smallest readings will have
lower apparatus uncertainty will lower the % uncertainty the highest experimental uncertainties.

To reduce the uncertainty in a burette reading it is necessary to

make the titre a larger volume. This could be done by: increasing
the volume and concentration of the substance in the conical flask
or by decreasing the concentration of the substance in the burette.

Reducing uncertainties in measuring mass

Using a balance that measures to more decimal places or using
a larger mass will reduce the % uncertainty in weighing a solid.

Weighing sample before and after addition and then calculating

difference will ensure a more accurate measurement of the
mass added.
If the %uncertainty due to the apparatus <
percentage difference between the actual value
Calculating the percentage difference between the
and the calculated value then there is a
actual value and the calculated value
discrepancy in the result due to other errors.
If we calculated an Mr of 203 and the real value is 214,
then the calculation is as follows: If the %uncertainty due to the apparatus >
Calculate difference 214-203 = 11 percentage difference between the actual value
% = 11/214 x100 and the calculated value then there is no
=5.41% discrepancy and any difference in the results can
be explained by the sensitivity of the equipment.

N Goalby chemrevise.org 13
 % Yield
% yield in a process can be lowered through
actual yield incomplete reactions, side reactions, losses during
percentage yield = x 100 transfers of substances, losses during purification
theoretical yield stages.

Example 29: 25.0g of Fe2O3 was reacted and it produced 10.0g of Fe. Calculate the percentage yield
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3 CO2

First calculate maximum mass of Fe that could be produced

Step 1: work out amount in mol of Iron oxide
amount = mass / Mr
=25 / 159.6
= 0.1566 mol
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of Fe
1 moles Fe2O3 : 2 moles Fe
So 0.1566 Fe2O3 : 0.313moles Fe
Step 3: work out mass of Fe
Mass = amount x Mr % yield = (actual yield/theoretical yield) x 100
= 0.313 x 55.8 = (10/ 17.48) x 100
=17.5 g
=57.2%

% Atom Economy

mass of useful products Do take into account

percentage balancing numbers
= x 100
atom economy when working out %
mass of all reactants
atom economy.

Example 30: Calculate the % atom economy for the following reaction where Fe is
the desired product assuming the reaction goes to completion.
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3 CO2
% atom economy = (2 x 55.8)
x 100
(2 x 55.8 + 3x16) + 3 x (12+16)
=45.8%

Sustainable chemistry requires chemists to design Reactions where there is only one product where all
processes with high atom economy that minimise atoms are used making product are ideal and have
production of waste products. 100% atom economy.
e.g. CH2=CH2 + H2  CH3CH3

If a process does have a side, waste product the economics of the process can be improved by selling the
bi-product for other uses

N Goalby chemrevise.org 14
 Reactions of Acids
Neutralisation reactions form salts
A Salt is formed when the H+ ion of an acid is replaced
by a metal ion or an ammonium ion Bases neutralise acids. Common bases are
metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia.

The most common strong acids are : An alkali is a soluble base that releases OH-
Hydrochloric ( HCl), sulfuric (H2SO4) and nitric (HNO3) ions in aqueous solution;
acid; The most common alkalis are sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
aqueous ammonia (NH3)
Common Acid Reaction Equations
Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Acid + base  salt + water
H2SO4 + K2CO3  K2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
HCl + NaOH  NaCl +H2O
2HNO3 + Mg(OH)2  Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O 2HCl + Na2CO3 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 +2H2O 2HCl + CaCO3  CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

2HCl + CaO  CaCl2 +H2O Observations : In carbonate reactions there will

be Effervescence due to the CO2 gas evolved
HCl + NH3  NH4Cl and the solid carbonate will dissolve. The
temperature will also increase.

Observations: These reaction will

acid + metal  salt + hydrogen effervesce because H2 gas is evolved
2HCl + Mg  MgCl2 + H2
and the metal will dissolve

Ionic equations for reactions of acids with metals, carbonates, bases and alkalis

Ionic Equations
acid + metal  salt + hydrogen
2HCl (aq) + Mg (s) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) 2H+ (aq) + Mg (s)  Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

acid + alkali (NaOH)  salt + water

2HNO2 (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq)  Ba(NO2)2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)  H2O (l)

acid + carbonate (Na2CO3)  salt + water + CO2

2H+(aq) + CO3 2–(aq)  H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
2HCl (aq)+ Na2CO3 (aq)  2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2 (g)

Example 31
The equation representing the reaction between copper(II) oxide and dilute sulfuric acid is
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Write the ionic equation for the reaction.

Only the sulfate ion is a spectator ion in this case because it’s the only ion not changing state.
CuO(s) + 2H+  Cu2+ (aq) + H2O(l)

N Goalby chemrevise.org 15
 Displacement Reactions
Metal displacement reactions
More reactive metals will displace less reactive metals from their compounds
Mg + CuSO4  Cu + MgSO4
Ionically Mg + Cu2+  Cu + Mg2+

Halogen displacement reactions

A halogen that is a strong oxidising agent will displace a halogen that has a lower oxidising power from
one of its compounds

Cl2(aq) + 2Br – (aq)  2Cl – (aq) + Br2(aq)

See topic 4b Halogens for
Cl2(aq) + 2I – (aq)  2Cl – (aq) + I2(aq) more detail
Br2(aq) + 2I – (aq)  2Br – (aq) + I2(aq)

Precipitation Reactions
Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed
lead nitrate (aq) + sodium chloride (aq)  lead chloride (s) + sodium nitrate (aq)
These are called precipitation reactions. A precipitate is a solid.

When making an insoluble salt, normally the salt would be removed by filtration, washed with
distilled water to remove soluble impurities and then dried on filter paper.

Writing Ionic equations for precipitation reactions

We usually write ionic equations to show precipitation Spectator ions are ions that are not
reactions. Ionic equations only show the ions that are • Not changing state
reacting and leave out spectator ions. • Not changing oxidation number

Take full equation Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq)  PbCl2 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)

Separate (aq) solutions Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2Na+ (aq)+ 2Cl-(aq)  PbCl2 (s) + 2 Na+(aq)+ 2NO3- (aq)
into ions

Cancel out spectator ions

Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)  PbCl2 (s)
leaving ionic equation

N Goalby chemrevise.org 16
Hazards and Risks

A hazard is a substance or procedure that can has the RISK: This is the probability or chance that
potential to do harm. harm will result from the use of a
Typical hazards are toxic/flammable /harmful/ hazardous substance or a procedure
irritant /corrosive /oxidizing/ carcinogenic

In the laboratory we try to minimise the risk

Irritant - dilute acid and alkalis- wear googles Hazardous substances in low
Corrosive- stronger acids and alkalis wear goggles concentrations or amounts
Flammable – keep away from naked flames will not pose the same risks
Toxic – wear gloves- avoid skin contact- wash hands after use as the pure substance.
Oxidising- Keep away from flammable / easily oxidised materials

Safely dealing with excess acid

Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are good for neutralising excess
acid in the stomach or acid spills because they are not corrosive and will not cause a hazard if used in
excess. They also have no toxicity if used for indigestion remedies but the CO2 produced can cause wind.
Magnesium hydroxide is also suitable for dealing with excess stomach acid as it has low solubility in water
and is only weakly alkaline so not corrosive or dangerous to drink (unlike the strong alkali sodium
hydroxide). It will also not produce any carbon dioxide gas.

N Goalby chemrevise.org
17