See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/344016939

Applications of Graph Coloring in Modern Computer Science

Article · January 2013

CITATIONS READS
11 18,157

1 author:

Shamim Ahmed
Bangladesh University of Business and Technology
25 PUBLICATIONS 102 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Shamim Ahmed on 01 September 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

COPYRIGHT © 2012 IJCIT, ISSN 2078-5828 (PRINT), ISSN 2218-5224 (ONLINE), VOLUME 03, ISSUE 02, MANUSCRIPT CODE: 130101

Applications of Graph Coloring in Modern

Computer Science
Shamim Ahmed

 Graph theoretical concepts are widely used to study and

Abstract—Graph coloring is one of the most important model various applications, in different areas. They include,
concepts in graph theory and is used in many real time study of molecules, construction of bonds in chemistry and
applications in computer science. The main aim of this paper is the study of atoms. Similarly, graph theory is used in
to present the importance of graph coloring ideas in various sociology for example to measure actor prestige or to explore
areas of compute applications for researches that they can use
diffusion mechanisms. Graph theory is used in biology and
graph coloring concepts for the research. Graph coloring used
in various research areas of computer science such data
conservation efforts where a vertex represents regions where
mining, image segmentation, clustering, image capturing, certain species exist and the edges represent migration path
networking etc. This papers mainly focused on important or movement between the regions. This information is
applications such as Guarding an Art Gallery, Physical layout important when looking at breeding patterns or tracking the
segmentation, Round-Robin Sports Scheduling, Aircraft spread of disease, parasites and to study the impact of
scheduling, Biprocessor tasks, Frequency assignment, Final migration that affects other species. Graph theoretical ideas
Exam Timetabling as a Grouping Problem, Map coloring and are highly utilized by computer science applications.
GSM mobile phone networks, and Student Time Table.
Graph coloring especially used various in research areas of
Index Terms—Graph Theory, Graph Coloring, Guarding an
computer science such data mining, image segmentation,
Art Gallery, Physical Layout Segmentation, Map Coloring,
clustering, image capturing, networking etc., For example a
Timetabling and Grouping Problems, Scheduling Problems,
Graph Coloring Applications. data structure can be designed in the form of tree which in
turn utilized vertices and edges. Similarly modeling of
network topologies can be done using graph concepts. In the
I. INTRODUCTION same way the most important concept of graph coloring is
utilized in resource allocation, scheduling. Also, paths,
The origin of graph theory started with the problem of walks and circuits in graph theory are used in tremendous
Koinsber bridge, in 1735. This problem lead to the concept of applications say traveling salesman problem, database
Eulerian Graph. Euler studied the problem of Koinsberg design concepts, resource networking. This leads to the
bridge and constructed a structure to solve the problem called development of new algorithms and new theorems that can
Eulerian graph. In 1840, A.F Mobius gave the idea of be used in tremendous applications.
complete graph and bipartite graph and Kuratowski proved
that they are planar by means of recreational problems. The Graph coloring is one of the most important concepts in
concept of tree, (a connected graph without cycles [1]) was graph theory and is used in many real time applications in
implemented by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1845, and he employed computer science. Various coloring methods are available
graph theoretical ideas in the calculation of currents in and can be used on requirement basis. The proper coloring of
electrical networks or circuits. In 1852, Thomas Gutherie a graph is the coloring of the vertices and edges with minimal
found the famous four color problem. Then in 1856, Thomas. number of colors such that no two vertices should have the
P. Kirkman and William R.Hamilton studied cycles on same color. The minimum number of colors is called as the
polyhydra and invented the concept called Hamiltonian chromatic number and the graph is called properly colored
graph by studying trips that visited certain sites exactly once. graph [1].
In 1913, H.Dudeney mentioned a puzzle problem.
Eventhough the four color problem was invented it was
solved only after a century by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang
II. APPLICATIONS OF GRAPH COLORING
Haken. This time is considered as the birth of Graph Theory.
A. Guarding an Art Gallery
The application of Graph Coloring also used in guarding an
art gallery. Art galleries therefore have to guard their
Manuscript received August 29, 2012. collections carefully. During the day the attendants can keep
Shamim Ahmed, lecturer, Department of Computer Science and Engineering
(CSE), Dhaka International University (DIU), Dhaka, Bangladesh. He also has
a look-out, but at night this has to be done by video cameras.
been studying as a M.Sc. in Engineering Student, Department of Computer These cameras are usually hung from the ceiling and they
Science and Engineering (CSE), Dhaka University of Engineering & rotate about a vertical axis. The images from the cameras are
Technology (DUET), Gazipur, Bangladesh. E-mail: sent to TV screens in the office of the night watch. Because it
[email protected]. Cell Phone: +8801672917779
is easier to keep an eye on few TV screens rather than on

url: www.ijcit.org or www.ijcit.uap-bd.edu 1

COPYRIGHT © 2012 IJCIT, ISSN 2078-5828 (PRINT), ISSN 2218-5224 (ONLINE), VOLUME 03, ISSUE 02, MANUSCRIPT CODE: 130101

many, the number of cameras should be as small as possible.

An additional advantage of a small number of cameras is that
the cost of the security system will be lower. On the other
hand we cannot have too few cameras, because every part of
the gallery must be visible to at least one of them. So we
should place the cameras at strategic positions, such that
each of them guards a large part of the gallery.

Fig 3. A Possible Triangulation of the Polygon in Fig 2.

A triangulated simple polygon can always be 3-colored. As a

result, any simple polygon can be guarded with└ n/3 ┘
cameras. But perhaps we can do even better. After all, a
camera placed at a vertex may guard more than just the
incident triangles. Unfortunately, for any n there are simple
polygons that require └ n/3 ┘ cameras. For a simple polygon
with n vertices, └ n/3 ┘cameras are occasionally necessary
and always sufficient to have every point in the polygon
visible from at least one of the cameras.
Fig 1. Cameras are used for guarding an art gallery.

If we want to define the art gallery problem more precisely,

we should first formalize the notion of gallery. A gallery is, of
course, a 3-dimensional space, but a floor plan gives us
enough information to place the cameras. Therefore we
model a gallery as a polygonal region in the plane. We
further restrict ourselves to regions that are simple polygons,
that is, regions enclosed by a single closed polygonal chain
that does not intersect itself. Thus we do not allow regions
with holes. A camera position in the gallery corresponds to a
point in the polygon. A camera sees those points in the
polygon to which it can be connected with an open segment
that lies in the interior of the polygon.

Fig 4. A 3-Coloring of the Triangulated Polygon in Fig 3, take the smallest color
class to place the cameras. Here, we can choose black or green color class to
place the cameras.

Fig 2. A Simple Polygon. Now we know that └ n/3 ┘cameras are always sufficient. But
we don’t have an efficient algorithm to compute the camera
positions yet. What we need is a fast algorithm for
triangulating a simple polygon. The algorithm should deliver
a suitable representation of the triangulation a
doubly-connected edge list, for instance so that we can step in
constant time from a triangle to its neighbors. Given such a
representation, we can compute a set of at most └ n/3
┘camera positions in linear time with the method described
above: use depth first search on the dual graph to compute a
3-colouring and take the smallest color class to place the
cameras. In the coming sections we describe how to compute

url: www.ijcit.org or www.ijcit.uap-bd.edu 2

COPYRIGHT © 2012 IJCIT, ISSN 2078-5828 (PRINT), ISSN 2218-5224 (ONLINE), VOLUME 03, ISSUE 02, MANUSCRIPT CODE: 130101

a triangulation in O(nlogn) time. Anticipating this, we Nations Rugby Championships, various European and South
already state the final result about guarding a polygon. American domestic soccer leagues, and the England and
Wales County Cricket Championships. Round-robins are
schedules involving n teams, where each team is required to
B. Physical Layout Segmentation play all other teams exactly m times within a fixed number of
Automatic mail sorting machines of most recent systems rounds. The most common types are single round-robins
process about 17 mail pieces per second. That requires a fast (SRRs), where m = 1, and double round- robins (DRRs),
and precise OCR based recognition of the block-address. where m = 2 (in the latter, teams will typically be scheduled
This recognition is mainly conditioned by a correct address to meet once in each other's home venue).
lines organization [2][3][4]. Once the envelope image has The issue of producing valid, compact round-robin sports
been acquired by a linear CCD camera, three principal schedules by considering the problem as one of graph
modules contribute to the task of the address-block coloring. Using this model, which can also be extended to
localization: physical layout segmentation of envelope incorporate additional constraints, the difficulty of such
image, feature extraction and address-block identification. problems is then gauged by considering the performance of a
number of different graph coloring algorithms. In many
Every-day, the postal sorting systems diffuse several tons of cases solutions to round-robin scheduling problems can be
mails. It is noted that the principal origin of mail rejection is produced via the utilization of well-known graph coloring
related to the failure of address-block localization task, principals. In particular, we have seen that three existing,
particularly, of the physical layout segmentation stage. The heuristic-based graph coloring methods have been able to
bottom-up and top-down segmentation methods bring construct valid compact round-robin schedules, often in the
different knowledge that should not be ignored when we need presence of a large number of additional hard constraints.
to increase the robustness. Hybrid methods combine the two However, we have also noted areas in which some of these
strategies in order to take advantages of one strategy to the methods seem to struggle, such as when tackling very large
detriment of other. Starting from these remarks, our proposal instances, or those in the noted phase transition regions.
makes use of a hybrid segmentation strategy more adapted to
the postal mails. The high level stages are based on the
hierarchical graphs coloring. Today, no other work in this
context has make use of the powerfulness of this tool. The
performance evaluation of our approach was tested on a
corpus of 10000 envelope images. The processing times and
the rejection rate were considerably reduced.

Fig. 5. Perception of the text lines by hierarchical graph coloring.

The segmentation technique objective is based on its decision

strategy which defines a best block extraction manner in
order to recognize it by the block address recognition
module. The segmentation techniques cannot systematically
produce uniform and good located blocks in complex
environments (difficult envelopes). Consequently, the
knowledge delivered by the descriptors of non-homogeneous
blocks (containing parasitic elements) is less discriminating.
In order to improve the robustness and exactness of
segmentation, it has been necessary to choose an even more
advanced tool. The idea is to use a hybrid strategy of
segmentation using the richness of pyramidal structure. Our
method is mainly based on the powerfulness of graph Fig. 6. Graphs for single (left) and double (right) round-robin problems with n =
coloring to regroup correctly the connected components into 4.
text lines then the lines into blocks.
D. Aircraft Scheduling
C. Round-Robin Spots Scheduling Assume that we have k aircrafts, and we have to assign
Round-robin (RR) sports schedules occur in many them to n flights, where the ith flight is during the time
tournaments and leagues across the globe, including the Six interval (ai, bi). Clearly, if two flights overlap, then we

url: www.ijcit.org or www.ijcit.uap-bd.edu 3

COPYRIGHT © 2012 IJCIT, ISSN 2078-5828 (PRINT), ISSN 2218-5224 (ONLINE), VOLUME 03, ISSUE 02, MANUSCRIPT CODE: 130101

cannot assign the same aircraft to both flights. The vertices of if the corresponding disks intersect. A 3-approximation
the conflict graph correspond to the flights, two vertices are algorithm for coloring unit disk graphs is given in [9],
connected if the corresponding time intervals overlap. yielding a 3-approximation for the frequency assignment
Therefore the conflict graph is an interval graph, which can problem.
be colored optimally in polynomial time.
G. Final Exam Timetabling as a Grouping Problem
Linear Linkage Encoding (LLE) is a recently proposed
E. Biprocessor Tasks representation scheme for evolutionary algorithms. This
Assume that we have a set of processors (machines) and a representation has been used only in data clustering.
set of tasks, each task has to be executed on two preassigned However, it is also suitable for grouping problems. Final
processors simultaneously. A processor cannot work on two exam timetabling requires satisfactory assignment of
jobs at the same time. For example, such biprocessor tasks timetable slots (periods) to a set of exams. Each exam is taken
arise when we want to schedule file transfers between by a number of students, based on a set of constraints. In most
processors [5] or in the case of mutual diagnostic testing of of the studies, NE like representations are used. In [10], a
processors [6]. Consider the graph whose vertices correspond randomly selected light or a heavy mutation followed by a
to the processors, and if there is a task that has to be executed hill climbing method was applied. Various combinations of
on processors i and j, then we add an edge between the two constraint satisfaction techniques with genetic algorithms
corresponding vertices. Now the scheduling problem can be can be found in [12]. Paquete et. al. [14] applied a
modeled as an edge coloring of this graph: we have to assign multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on pareto
colors to the edges in such a way that every color appears at ranking with two objectives: minimize the number of
most once at a vertex. Edge coloring is NP-hard [7], but there conflicts within the same group and between groups. Wong
are good approximation algorithms. The maximum degree Δ et. al [15] applied a GA with a non-elitist replacement
of the graph is an obvious lower bound on the number of strategy. After genetic operators are applied, violations are
colors needed to color the edges of the graph. On the other repaired with a hill climbing fixing process. In their
hand, if there are no multiple edges in the graph (there are no experiments a single problem instance was used. Ozcan et.
two tasks that require the same two processors), then al. [13] proposed a memetic algorithm (MA) for solving final
Vizing’s Theorem gives an efficient method for obtaining a exam timetabling at Yeditepe University. MA utilizes a
(Δ + 1)-edge coloring. If multiple edges are allowed, then the violation directed adaptive hill climber. Considering the task
algorithm of [8] gives an 1:1-approximate solution. of minimizing the number of exam periods and removing the
clashes, final exam timetabling reduces to the graph coloring
problem [11].

H. Map Coloring and GSM Mobile Phone Networks

Groups Special Mobile (GSM) is a mobile phone network
where the geographical area of this network is divided into
hexagonal regions or cells. Each cell has a communication
tower which connects with mobile phones within the cell. All
mobile phones connect to the GSM network by searching for
cells in the neighbors. Since GSM operate only in four
Fig. 7. Tasks allocated to processors, the diagram shows the tasks namely task1, different frequency ranges, it is clear by the concept of graph
task2, task3 and task4 are allocated to the processors (P1, P5); (P1, P6); (P2, theory that only four colors can be used to color the cellular
P4) and (P3, P7) respectively
regions. These four different colors are used for proper
coloring of the regions. Therefore, the vertex coloring
algorithm may be used to assign at most four different
F. Frequency Assignment frequencies for any GSM mobile phone network. Given a
Assume that we have a number of radio stations, identified map drawn on the plane or on the surface of a sphere, the four
by x- and y- coordinates in the plane. We have to assign a color theorem assets that it is always possible to color the
frequency to each station, but due to interferences, stations regions of a map properly using at most four distinct colors
that are “close” to each other have to receive different such that no two adjacent regions are assigned the same
frequencies. Such problems arise in frequency assignment of color. Now, a dual graph is constructed by putting a vertex
base stations in cellular phone networks. At first sight, one inside each region of the map and connect two distinct
might think that the conflict graph is planar in this problem, vertices by an edge iff their respective regions share a whole
and the Four Color Theorem can be used, but it is not true: if segment of their boundaries in common. Then proper
there are lots of stations in small region, then they are all coloring of the dual graph gives proper coloring of the
close to each other, therefore they form a large clique in the original map. Since, coloring the regions of a planar graph G
conflict graph. Instead, the conflict graph is a unit disk is equivalent to coloring the vertices of its dual graph and
graph, where each vertex corresponds to a disk in the plane vice versa.[16] By coloring the map regions using four color
with unit diameter, and two vertices are connected if and only theorem, the four frequencies can be assigned to the regions
accordingly.[17]

url: www.ijcit.org or www.ijcit.uap-bd.edu 4

COPYRIGHT © 2012 IJCIT, ISSN 2078-5828 (PRINT), ISSN 2218-5224 (ONLINE), VOLUME 03, ISSUE 02, MANUSCRIPT CODE: 130101

Graph coloring is the assignment of labels or colors to

elements of a graph (vertices or edges) subject to certain
constraints. In this project, we will consider how as few
colors as possible can be assigned to vertices of a graph so
that no two neighboring vertices (vertices connected by an
edge) have the same color. The convention of using colors
comes from coloring countries on a map where each country
should have a different color from its neighbour. However,
countries on a map is an example of a planar graph and for
planar graphs, four colours are enough. In the case of
non-planar graphs, we do not know how many colors are
required.
In graph theory, a planar graph is a graph that can be
embedded in the plane, i.e, it can be drawn on the plane in
such a way that its edges intersect only at their endpoints. An
example of a map coloring (planar case) is shown in Figure 8
where neighboring states are colored using different colors.

Given a map drawn on the plane or the surface of a sphere, Fig. 9. The map of India
the famous four colour theorem asserts that it is always
possible to properly color the regions of the map such that no
two adjacent regions are assigned the same color, using at
most four distinct colors[18][20][21].

Fig. 6. The dual graph of the map of India

Fig. 8. Map coloring of the states in the U.S. We use the vertex coloring algorithm [19] to find a proper
coloring of the map of India with four colors, see figures 5
For any given map, we can construct its dual graph as and 6 above. The Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) was created
follows. Put a vertex inside each region of the map and in 1982 to provide a standard for a mobile telephone system.
connect two distinct vertices by an edge if and only if their The first GSM network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja
respective regions share a whole segment of their boundaries in Finland with joint technical infrastructure maintenance
in common. Then, a proper vertex coloring of the dual graph from Ericsson. Today, GSM is the most popular standard for
yields a proper coloring of the regions of the original map. mobile phones in the world, used by over 2 billion people
across more than 212 countries. GSM is a cellular network
with its entire geographical range divided into hexagonal
cells. Each cell has a communication tower which connects
with mobile phones within the cell. All mobile phones
connect to the GSM network by searching for cells in the
immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in only four
different frequency ranges. The reason why only four
different frequencies suffice is clear: the map of the cellular
regions can be properly colored by using only four different
colors! So, the vertex coloring algorithm may be used for
assigning at most four different frequencies for any GSM
mobile phone network, see figure 10 below.

url: www.ijcit.org or www.ijcit.uap-bd.edu 5

COPYRIGHT © 2012 IJCIT, ISSN 2078-5828 (PRINT), ISSN 2218-5224 (ONLINE), VOLUME 03, ISSUE 02, MANUSCRIPT CODE: 130101

Table 1: Course distribution

The cause for potential conflict could be any of the following
example restrictions:
a) Courses Calculus and Electronics might be taught by the
Fig. 10. The cells of a GSM mobile phone network same professor,
b) Courses Microprocessors and Operating Systems might be
taken by the same student.
I. Student Time Table
Timetabling is the allocation, subject to constraints, of Given the list of courses Physics, Calculus, Electro- nics,
given resources to objects in space-time domain to satisfy a Microprocessors, and Operating Systems along with the set
set of desirable objectives as nearly as possible. Particularly, of potential conflicts, we can create a conflict-free timetable
the university timetabling problem for courses can be viewed of courses by transforming the Table 1 to the corresponding
as fixing in time and space a sequence of meetings between conflict graph G in Figure 11, and finding a minimum
instructors and students, while simultaneously satisfying a coloring. A vertex in G represents a course, an edge
number of various essential conditions or constraints. represents a pair of courses that conflict, and a color
represents the period in which that particular course is to be
Graph Coloring Algorithm was used to generate the student scheduled. We see that four periods are required to schedule
weekly time table in a typical university department. The all the courses without conflict: (G) = 4. According to the
problem was a Node-Point problem and it could not be solved coloring, we can schedule courses Physics and Operating
in the polynomial domain. Various constraints in weekly Systems for Period 1, and courses Calculus, Electronics, and
scheduling such as lecturer demands, course hours and Microprocessors for Periods 2, 3, and 4 respectively. With
laboratory allocations were confronted and weekly time course timetabling, it is often desirable that courses do not
tables were generated for 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th year students “student-conflict” (i.e., those two courses sharing a common
in a typical semester. student will not be scheduled at the same time).

In a typical semester, the courses are required to be scheduled

at different times in order to avoid conflict. The problem of
determining the minimum number (or a reasonable number) III. CONCLUSION
of time slots needed to schedule all the courses subject to
An overview is presented especially to project the idea of
restrictions is a graph coloring problem. Figure 11 illustrates
graph coloring. Researches may get some information
a simple timetabling problem instance in which we have five
related to graph coloring and its applications in computer
courses to be scheduled: Physics, Calculus, Electronics,
field and can get some ideas related to their field of research.
Microprocessors, and Operating Systems.
This paper gives an overview of the applications of graph
coloring in heterogeneous fields to some extent but mainly
focuses on the computer science applications that uses graph
coloring concepts. Various papers based on graph coloring
have been studied related to scheduling concepts, computer
science applications and an overview has been presented
here.

REFERENCES
Fig 11. Colored graph G for 5 courses.
[1] Narasingh Deo, “Graph theory with applications to engineering and
computer science”, Prentice Hall of India, 1990.
In Table 1 below, an asterisk indicates those pairs of courses [2] Wang Ching-Huei, P.W. Palumbo, S.N. Srihari, Object recognition in
visually complex environments: an architecture for locating address
that would cause a timetabling conflict if both were blocks on mail pieces, Pattern Recognition, 1988., 9th International
scheduled at the same time. Conference, IEEE, 1988, vol.1, Pages: 365 – 367.
[3] C Viard-Gaudin, D Barba, A multi-resolution approach to extract the
address block on flat mail pieces, ICASSP-91, International Conference,
vol.4, Pages: 2701 - 2704 .

url: www.ijcit.org or www.ijcit.uap-bd.edu 6

 COPYRIGHT © 2012 IJCIT, ISSN 2078-5828 (PRINT), ISSN 2218-5224 (ONLINE), VOLUME 03, ISSUE 02, MANUSCRIPT CODE: 130101

[4] Rémy Mullot, Livre: Les documents écrits de la numérisation à

l’indexation par le contenu, Editeur : Hermes science Publication, Nov Shamim Ahmed he was born in Dhaka, Bangladesh on
2006, 365 pages, ISBN-10 : 2746211432. February, 1986. Now he has been serving as a lecturer,
[5] E. G. Coffman, Jr., M. R. Garey, D. S. Johnson, and A. S. LaPaugh, Department of Computer Science and Engineering (CSE),
“Scheduling file transfers,” SIAM J. Comput., 14(3):744–780, 1985. Dhaka International University (DIU), Dhaka,
[6] J. A. Hoogeveen, S. L. van de Velde, and B. Veltman, “Complexity of Bangladesh. He also has been studying as a M.Sc. in
scheduling multiprocessor tasks with prespecified processor allocations,” Engineering Student, Department of Computer Science
Discrete Appl. Math., 55(3):259–272, 1994. and Engineering (CSE), Dhaka University of Engineering
[7] I. Holyer, “The NP-completeness of edge-coloring,” SIAM J. Comput., & Technology (DUET), Gazipur, Bangladesh. He got
10(4):718–720, Nov. 1981. B.Sc. in engineering degree in CSE in the year of 2010 from DUET, Gazipur,
[8] T. Nishizeki and K. Kashiwagi, “On the 1:1 edge-coloring of Bangladesh. He has been serving as a reviewer of International Journal of
multigraphs,” SIAM J. Discrete Math., 3(3):391–410, 1990. Scientific and engineering Research (IJSER) in France. Right now he teaches
[9] A. Gr¨af, M. Stumpf, and G. Weißenfels, “On coloring unit disk graphs,” courses on Data Communication and Computer Networking, Object Oriented
Algorithmica, 20(3):277–293, 1998. Programming using C++ and Java, Artificial Intelligence, Formal Language
[10] Burke, E.K., Newall, J. and Weare, R.F. (1996) ”A Memetic Algorithm and Automata Theory, Microprocessor and Assembly Language Programming,
for University Exam Timetabling”. In: Burke, E.; Ross, P. (eds.): Practice Computer Organization and Architecture and Data Structures. Field of interest:
and Theory of Automated Timetabling, First International Conference, Digital Image Processing, Artificial Neural Network, Artificial Intelligence &
Edinburgh, U.K., August/September 1995. Selected Papers. Lecture Visual Effects. E-mail: [email protected]. Cell Phone No.:
Notes in Computer Science 1153, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg +8801672917779
New York 241– 250.
[11] F.T, Leighton, (1979) ”A Graph Coloring Algorithm for large Scheduling
Problems”, Journal of Research of the National Bureau Standard, 84 pp
79-100.
[12] H., Terashima-Marn, P. Ross, and M. Valenzuela-Rendn, (1999)
”Clique-Based Crossover for Solving the Timetabling Problem with
Gas”, Proc. of the Congress on Evolutionary Computation, pp.
1200-1206.
[13] E., Ozcan, E., Ersoy, (2005)”Final Exam Scheduler - FES”, Proc. of
2005 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation, vol. 2, pp
1356-1363.
[14] L. F., Paquete, and C. M., Fonseca (2001) ”A Study of Examination
Timetabling with Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithms”, Proc. of the
4th Metaheuristics International Conference (MIC 2001), pp. 149-154,
Porto.
[15] T., Wong, P., Cote, and P., Gely, (2002) ”Final exam timetabling: a
practical approach”, Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Winnipeg, CA, vol.2, pp. 726- 731.
[16] Narasingh Deo, “Graph theory with applications to engineering and
computer science”, Prentice Hall of India, 1990.
[17] Shariefuddin Pirzada and Ashay Dharwadker, “Journal of the Korean
Society for Industrial and applied Mathematics, Volume 11, No.4, 2007
[18] K. Appel and W. Haken, Every Planar Map is Four Colorable, Bull.
Amer. Math. Soc. 82 (1976) 711-712.
[19] Ashay Dharwadker, The Vertex Coloring Algorithm, 2006,
http://www.dharwadker.org/vertex_coloring
[20] Ashay Dharwadker, A New Proof of The Four Colour Theorem, 2000,
http://www.dharwadker.org
[21] Shariefuddin Pirzada and Ashay Dharwadker, Graph Theory, Orient
Longman and Universities Press of India, 2007.

url: www.ijcit.org or www.ijcit.uap-bd.edu 7

View publication stats