Linux:

1. Use the package manager of

your distribution (apt-get,
yum, etc.).
2. Example for Debian-based
systems: sudo apt-get
install python3.
3. Verify installation by running
python3 --version in the
terminal.
Basics of Python Interpreter:
Definition: The Python interpreter is
a program that reads and executes
Python code. It translates high-level
Python instructions into machine
language.
Modes:
oInteractive Mode: Run Python
directly in the terminal using
python (or python3).
 oScript Mode: Write Python code
in a file with a .py extension
and run it using python
script.py.
Execution of Python Program:
Writing a Python Script: Use a
text editor or an IDE to write Python
code in a file with a .py extension.
Running the Script:
python
# script.py
print("Hello, World!")
Execute in terminal:
sh
python script.py
Editor for Python Code:
IDEs and Editors:
oIDLE: The default Python
Integrated Development and
Learning Environment.
 PyCharm: Feature-rich IDE with
o

powerful debugging tools.

VS Code: Lightweight and
o

highly customizable editor with

numerous extensions.
Jupyter Notebook: Ideal for
o

data analysis and visualization,

supports code execution in cells.
Syntax, Variables, Types:
Syntax:
Indentation: Essential for
o

defining code blocks. Typically,

four spaces.
Comments: Single-line
o

comments use #, multi-line

comments use """.
Basic Syntax:
o

python
# This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")
Variables:
 oDefinition: Named locations
used to store data.
oDynamic Typing: No need to
declare the type; it’s inferred
from the value.
oExample:
python
x = 10 # int
y = 3.14 # float
name = "Alice" # str
 Types:
oCommon Types: int, float,
str, bool, list, tuple,
set, dict.
oType Conversion: Use functions
like int(), float(), str(),
etc.
python
age = "21"
age = int(age) #
Converts to integer
Flow Control:
 If:
o Definition: Executes a block of
code if a condition is true.
o Syntax:
python
if condition:
# code block
 If-else:
o Definition: Executes one block if
the condition is true, another
block if false.
o Syntax:
python
if condition:
# code block
else:
# another block UNIT-I:
Basics of Python Programming
Python Introduction:
 Definition: Python is a high-level,
interpreted programming language
known for its simplicity and
readability. Created by Guido van
Rossum and first released in 1991,
Python emphasizes code readability
and allows programmers to express
concepts in fewer lines of code
compared to languages like C++ or
Java.

 Key Features:
oInterpreted: Python code is
executed line-by-line, making
debugging easier.
oHigh-level: Python abstracts
away many of the complex
details of the computer's
hardware.
 oDynamically Typed: Variable
types are determined at runtime,
not in advance.
oPortable: Python code can run
on various platforms without
modification.
Installing and Setting Python
Environment in Windows and Linux:
 Windows:
1. Download the Python installer
from the official Python website.
2. Run the installer and ensure
you check the "Add Python to
PATH" option.
3. Verify installation by running
python --version in the
command prompt.

 For Loop:
oDefinition: Iterates over a
sequence (e.g., list, tuple, string).
 oSyntax:
python
for i in range(1, 10,
2):
print(i) # 1, 3,
5, 7, 9
 Continue:
oDefinition: Skips the rest of the
code inside the loop for the
current iteration and moves to the
next iteration.
oSyntax:
python
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
continue
print(i) # 0, 1,
2, 4
 Pass:
oDefinition: Does nothing; used
as a placeholder.
 oSyntax:
python
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
pass #
Placeholder for future
code
print(i) # 0, 1,
2, 3, 4
 Break:
oDefinition: Exits the loop
prematurely.
oSyntax:
python
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
break
print(i) # 0, 1,
2
Strings:
 Sequence Operations:
 o Definition: Operations that can
be performed on sequences, like
strings.
o Example:
python
text = "hello"
print(text[0]) # 'h'
print(text[1:4]) #
'ell'
print(text + " world")
# 'hello world'
print(text * 2) #
'hellohello'
 String Methods:
o Definition: Built-in methods for
manipulating strings.
o Example:
python
text = " Hello, World!
"
 text = text.lower() #
' hello, world! '
text = text.upper() #
' HELLO, WORLD! python
for item in sequence:
# code block
 While Loop:
oDefinition: Repeatedly executes
a block of code as long as a
condition is true.
oSyntax:
python
while condition:
# code block
 Range Function:
oDefinition: Generates a sequence
of numbers.
oSyntax:
python
range(start, stop,
step)
 o Example:
'
text = text.strip() #
'Hello, World!'
text =
text.find("World") #
7
text =
text.replace("Hello",
"Hi") # ' Hi, World!
'
 Pattern Matching:
o Definition: Using regular
expressions (re module) to
search for patterns in strings.
o Example:
python
import re
pattern = r'\bword\b'
if re.search(pattern,
text):
 print("Match
found!")

UNIT-II: Lists Tuples and Sets

 by commas. A concise way to create

lists. It consists of brackets
containing an expression followed
by a for clause.
python
squares = [x**2 for x in
range(10)] # [0, 1, 4,
9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64,
81]
Nested Lists (Matrices):
 Lists can contain other lists, making
it possible to create matrices (2D
lists).
python
matrix = [
 [1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]
]
print(matrix[0][1]) # 2
Dictionaries
Definition:
 A dictionary is a collection of key-
value pairs. Each key is unique and
maps to a value. Dictionaries are
mutable and defined using curly
braces {}.
Creating a Dictionary:
 To create a dictionary, place key-
value pairs inside curly braces,
separated by commas. Each key is
followed by a colon and its
corresponding value.
python
my_dict = {"name":
"Alice", "age": 25,
 "email":
"[email protected]"}
Accessing Elements:
You can access the value associated
with a key using square brackets.
python
name = my_dict["name"]
# Alice
Adding/Updating Elements:
Add a new key-value pair or update
an existing one by assigning a value
to the key.
python
my_dict["phone"] = "123-
456-7890"
my_dict["age"] = 26 #
Updates the value of
"age"
Removing Elements:
 del Statement: Removes a key-
value pair.
python
del my_dict["email"]
 pop() Method: Removes and
returns the value associated with a
specified key.
python
phone =
my_dict.pop("phone") #
Returns "123-456-7890"
Iteration:
 Loop through keys, values, or key-
value pairs in a dictionary.
python
for key in my_dict:
print(key,
my_dict[key])
 Use items() to get key-value
pairs.
 python
for key, value in
my_dict.items():
print(key, value)
Tuples
Definition:
 A tuple is an immutable, ordered
collection of items. Tuples are
defined using parentheses ().
Creating a Tuple:
To create a tuple, place items inside
parentheses, separated by commas.
python
my_tuple = (1, 2, 3,
'hello', 4.5)
Accessing Elements:
You can access elements in a tuple
using their index.
python
 first_item = my_tuple[0]
# 1
last_item = my_tuple[-1]
# 4.5
Immutability:
Once a tuple is created, you cannot
change its elements. This makes
tuples useful for fixed collections of
items.
python
# Attempting to modify a
tuple will result in an
error
my_tuple[1] = 'Python'
# TypeError: 'tuple'
object does not support
item assignment
Advantages of Tuples:
Since tuples are immutable, they can
be used as keys in dictionaries (lists
cannot).
Tuples generally use less memory
than lists.
Comparison with Lists:
Mutability:
oLists are mutable (can change).
oTuples are immutable (cannot
change).
Usage:
oUse lists when you need a
collection of items that can
change.
oUse tuples when you need a
collection of items that should
remain constant.
Sets
Definition:
A set is a mutable, unordered
collection of unique items. Sets are
defined using curly braces {}.
Creating a Set:
To create a set, place items inside
curly braces, separated by commas.
python
my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Adding Elements:
Use add() to add an element to the
set.
python
my_set.add(6)
python
my_list = [1, 2, 3,
'hello', 4.5]
Here, my_list contains integers, a
string, and a float.
Accessing Elements:
You can access elements in a list
using their index (position in the
list). Indexing starts at 0.
python
 first_item = my_list[0]
# 1
last_item = my_list[-1]
# 4.5
Adding Elements:
 append() Method: Adds an
element to the end of the list.
python
my_list.append(6) # [1,
2, 3, 'hello', 4.5, 6]
 insert() Method: Adds an
element at a specified position.
python
my_list.insert(1,
'world') # [1, 'world',
2, 3, 'hello', 4.5, 6]
Removing Elements:
 remove() Method: Removes the
first occurrence of a specified
element.
 python
my_list.remove('
Lists
Definition:
A list is a collection of items that are
ordered and changeable (mutable).
Lists allow duplicate elements and
are defined using square brackets
[].
Creating a List:
To create a list, you place elements
inside square brackets, separated
hello') # [1, 'world',
2, 3, 4.5, 6]
pop() Method: Removes and
returns the element at a specified
position. If no index is specified, it
removes the last item.
python
 my_list.pop(2) #
Removes 2, resulting in
[1, 'world', 3, 4.5, 6]
 clear() Method: Removes all
elements from the list.
python
my_list.clear() # []
Modifying Elements:
 You can change the value of an
existing element using its index.
python
my_list[1] = 'Python' #
['Python', 'world', 3,
4.5, 6]
Iteration:
 Loop through elements in a list
using a for loop.
python
for item in my_list:
print(item)
 List Comprehension:

Removing Elements:
Use remove() to remove an
element from the set.
python
my_set.remove(3)
discard() Method: Similar to
remove(), but does not raise an
error if the element is not found.
python
my_set.discard(10) #
Does nothing since 10 is
not in the set
Set Operations:
Union: Combines elements from
both sets.
python
set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}
 union_set = set1 | set2
# {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Intersection: Returns common
elements from both sets.
python
intersection_set = set1
& set2 # {3}
Difference: Returns elements in the
first set but not in the second.
python
difference_set = set1 -
set2 # {1, 2}
Symmetric Difference: Returns
elements in either set, but not in
both.
python
symmetric_difference_set
= set1 ^ set2 # {1, 2,
4, 5}
Iteration:
 Loop through elements in a set using
a for loop.
python
for item in my_set:
print(item)
Summary Comparison
Featu Dictiona
Lists Tuples Sets
re ries

Order Ordere Unorder Ordere Unorde

d ed d red
Mutabi Mutabl Immuta Mutabl
Mutable
lity e ble e
Allows No Allows No
Duplic
duplic duplicate duplica duplica
ates
ates keys tes tes
Indexin Suppor Does Suppor Does
g ts not ts not
indexi support indexin support
ng indexing g indexin
 Featu Dictiona
Lists Tuples Sets
re ries
g
{}
with
Definiti [] key- () {}
on value
pairs

UNIT-III Functions Modules and

Python Files
Functions
Definition:
A function is a block of reusable
code that performs a specific task.
Functions help to make programs
more organized, modular, and easier
to maintain.
  Syntax: Functions are defined using
the def keyword, followed by the
function name and parentheses ().
The code block within every
function starts with a colon : and is
indented.
Example:
python
def greet():
print("Hello, World!")
Function Call:
 To execute a function, you need to
call it by its name followed by
parentheses.
 Example:
python
greet() # Output: Hello,
World!
Arguments:
 Arguments are values passed into a
function to give it input to work
with.
 Positional Arguments: Arguments
that are passed in the correct
positional order.
python
def greet(name):
print(f"Hello,
{name}!")
greet("Alice") #
Output: Hello, Alice!
 Keyword Arguments: Arguments
passed with key=value syntax.
python
def greet(name,
greeting="Hello"):
print(f"{greeting},
{name}!")
 greet(name="Alice",
greeting="Hi") #
Output: Hi, Alice!
 Default Arguments: Arguments
that have default values if no value
is provided.
python
def greet(name,
greeting="Hello"):
print(f"{greeting},
{name}!")
greet("Alice") #
Output: Hello, Alice!
 Arbitrary Arguments: Use *args
and **kwargs to accept any
number of positional or keyword
arguments.
python
def greet(*names):
for name in names:
 print(f"Hello,
{name}!")
greet("Alice", "Bob",
"Charlie") # Output:
Hello, Alice! Hello,
Bob! Hello, Charlie!
Scope Rules and Name Resolution:
 Scope: Refers to the region of the
code where a variable can be
accessed. Python uses the LEGB
rule (Local, Enclosing, Global,
Built-in) to resolve the scope of
variables.
oLocal Scope: Variables defined
inside a function.
oEnclosing Scope: Variables
defined in the outer function in
case of nested functions.
oGlobal Scope: Variables defined
at the top level of a script or
module.
 o Built-in Scope: Names that are
preassigned in Python (like
print()).
Example:
python
x = "global"

def outer():
x = "enclosing"
def inner():
x = "local"
print(x) #
Output: local
inner()
print(x) # Output:
enclosing

outer()
print(x) # Output: global
Modules
Module Coding Basics:
 A module is a file containing Python
definitions and statements. The file
name is the module name with the
suffix .py.
Example: mymodule.py
python
# mymodule.py
def add(a, b):
return a + b
def subtract(a, b):
return a - b
Importing Programs as Modules:
Use the import statement to
include the module in your code.
python
import mymodule
print(mymodule.add(5,
3)) # Output: 8
From Import Statement: Import
specific functions or variables from
a module.
 python
from mymodule import add
print(add(5, 3)) #
Output: 8
Executing Modules as Scripts:
Use the special variable __name__
to determine if the module is being
run on its own or being imported
somewhere else.
python
# mymodule.py
def main():
print("This is a
script")

if __name__ ==
"__main__":
main()
Compiled Python Files (.pyc):
When a Python script is run, the
Python interpreter compiles the code
 to bytecode, which is stored in
.pyc files in the __pycache__
directory. This makes the program
start faster on subsequent runs.
Standard Modules:
 Python comes with a standard
library of modules. Some useful
standard modules include:
o os Module: Provides a way to
interact with the operating
system.
python
import os
print(os.getcwd()) #
Output: Current
working directory
o sys Module: Provides access to
some variables used or
maintained by the interpreter and
to functions that interact with the
interpreter.
 python
import sys
print(sys.version) #
Output: Python version
The dir() Function:
The dir() function is used to list
the names in the current local scope
or the attributes of a given object.
python
import mymodule
print(dir(mymodule)) #
Output: List of
attributes and functions
in mymodule
Packages:
A package is a way of structuring
Python’s module namespace by
using “dotted module names”. A
package is a collection of modules.
Creating a Package: Create a
directory and add an
 __init__.py file to it, which
indicates that the directory is a
package.
o Directory Structure:
o mypackage/
o __init__.py
o module1.py
o module2.py
o Importing from a Package:
python
from mypackage import
module1
from mypackage.module2
import function
Summary Comparison
Topi Descrip
Example Code
c tion
Func Reusabl def greet(name):
tions e print(f"Hello,
blocks {name}!")<br>greet
of code ("Alice")
 Topi Descrip
Example Code
c tion
that
perform
a
specific
task
Executi
Func ng a
tion functio greet("Alice")
Call n by its
name
Values def greet(name,
Argu passed greeting="Hello")
ment to a
:<br>greet("Alice"
s functio
, greeting="Hi")
n
Scop Variabl x =
e e "global"<br>def
Rules visibilit outer(): x =
y "enclosing" def
 Topi Descrip
Example Code
c tion
governe
d by inner(): x =
LEGB "local" print(x)
rule
Files import
containi
Mod mymodule<br>print(
ng
ules mymodule.add(5,
Python
3))
code
Includi from mymodule
Impo
ng a import
rting
module
Mod add<br>print(add(5
in your
ules , 3))
code
Exec Runnin if __name__ ==
uting g a "__main__":
as module main()
Scrip as the
t main
Topi Descrip
Example Code
c tion
progra
m
.pyc
files
Com
created The .pyc files in the
piled
to
Pyth __pycache__
improv
on directory
e
Files
perform
ance
Pre-
installe import
Stan d os<br>print(os.get
dard module
cwd())<br>import
Mod s such
sys<br>print(sys.v
ules as os
ersion)
and
sys
dir( Lists import
 Topi Descrip
Example Code
c tion
names
in the
current
local
)
scope mymodule<br>print(
Func
or dir(mymodule))
tion
attribut
es of a
given
object
Pack Collecti from mypackage
ages on of import
module module1<br>from
s mypackage.module2
structur import function
ed with
director
ies and
__ini
Topi Descrip
Example Code
c tion
t__.p
y files