UNIT-I

Quantum Computing

Dr. DADAMIAH PMD SHAIK

Associate Professor
Department of Physics
Vardhaman College of Engineering (A)
[email protected]
 Computing
 The process of utilizing computer technology to complete a
task. Computing may involve computer hardware and/or
software, but must involve some form of a computer system.
 Computing includes designing, developing and building
hardware and software systems.
 Computing also includes processing, structuring and managing
various kinds of information.
 Computing is doing scientific research on and with computers;
entertaining the media.
 Types of Computing
 Traditional Computing Environment
 Cloud Computing
 Grid Computing
 Distributed Computing
 Cluster Computing
 Personal Computing
 Time-Sharing Computing
 Client-Server Computing
 Peer-to-Peer Computing
 Mobile Computing
 Quantum computing
 Quantum Computing
Quantum computing is a multidisciplinary field comprising aspects
of computer science, physics, and mathematics that utilizes
quantum mechanics to solve complex problems faster than on
classical computers.

The field of quantum computing includes hardware research and

application development.
 Bits and qubits
1. Bits :
It’s a single unit of information that has a value of either 0 or 1 (off or
on, false or true, low or high).

2. Quantum Bits :
A qubits (quantum bits) can hold a one, a zero or crucially a
superposition of these.

In quantum computing, a qubit or quantum bit is the basic unit of

quantum information—the quantum version of the classical binary bit
physically realized with a two-state device.

A qubit is a two-state quantum-mechanical system, one of the

simplest quantum systems displaying the peculiarity of quantum
mechanics.
 Difference between bits and qubits
S.NO BITS QUBITS

The device computes by manipulating those bits The device computes by manipulating those bits with the
1.
with the help of logical gates (AND, OR, NOT). help of quantum logic gates.

A classical computer has a memory made up of bits A qubits (quantum bits) can hold a one, a zero or crucially
2.
where each bit hold either a one or zero. a superposition of these.

3. Bits are used in classical computers. Qubits(Quantum bits) are use in quantum computer

Information is stored in quantum bits, or qbits. A qbit can

be in states labelled |0} and |1}, but it can also be in a
Information is stored in bits, which take the discrete superposition of these states, a|0} + b|1}, where a and b
4.
values 0 and 1. are complex numbers. If we think of the state of a qbit as
a vector, then superposition of states is just vector
addition.

For example, for every extra qbit you get, you can store
For example, if storing one number takes 64 bits, twice as many numbers. For example, with 3 qbits, you
5.
then storing N numbers takes N times 64 bits. get coefficients for |000}, |001}, |010}, |011}, |100},
|101}, |110} and |111}.

6. Bits are slow. Qubits are faster.

7. Its circuit behaviour based on classical physics. Its circuit behaviour based on quantum mechanics.
 Representation of Data - Qubits

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of

two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is
known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy
levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1> and a
ground state representing |0>.
Light pulse of
frequency  for
Excited time interval t
State

Nucleus
Ground
State
Electron
State |0> State |1>
 Representation of Data - Superposition

A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states

denoted by the addition of the state vectors:

|> =  1 |0> +  2 |1>

2 2
Where  1 and 2 are complex numbers and | 1| + |  2 | = 1

A qubit in superposition is in both of the

states |1> and |0> at the same time
 Representation of Data - Superposition
Light pulse of
frequency  for time
interval t/2

State |0> State |0> + |1>

Consider a 2 bit qubit register. An equally weighted

superposition of all possible states would be denoted by:
1 1 1
|> = |00> + |01> + . . . + |11>
√2 √2 √2
Bit and Qubit
 Classical and quantum logic gates

Classical gates operate on classical bits, while quantum gates operate

on quantum bits (qubits).

This means that quantum gates can leverage two key aspects of
quantum mechanics that are entirely out of reach for classical gates:
superposition and entanglement.
Classical logic gates
 Quantum logic gates

We need to figure out which part goes in evolutions and operations

and which goes into computation (eg, the universal section)

A quantum gate or quantum logic gate is a rudimentary quantum

circuit operating on a small number of qubits. They are the analogues
for quantum computers to classical logic gates for conventional digital
computers. Quantum logic gates are reversible, unlike many classical
logic gates. Some universal classical logic gates, such as the Toffoli
gate, provide reversibility and can be directly mapped onto quantum
logic gates. Quantum logic gates are represented by unitary matrices.

The most common quantum gates operate on spaces of one or two

qubits. This means that as matrices, quantum gates can be described
by 2 x 2 or 4 x 4 matrices with orthonormal rows.
 Quantum logic gates

 Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have

a degenerate output. i.e. their original input state can be derived
from their output state, uniquely. They must be reversible.

This means that a deterministic computation can be performed

on a quantum computer only if it is reversible. Luckily, it has
been shown that any deterministic computation can be made
reversible.(Charles Bennet, 1973)

Quantum logic gates are represented by unitary matrices. A gate

which acts on n qubits is represented by a 2n x 2n unitary matrix,
 Quantum Gates - Hadamard

Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a Hadamard

Gate (also known as a square-root of NOT gate.) Used to put
qubits into superposition.

H H
State State State
|0> |0> + |1> |1>

Note: Two Hadamard gates used in

succession as a NOT gate
 Quantum Gates - Controlled NOT

A gate which operates on two qubits is called a Controlled-

NOT (CN) Gate. If the bit on the control line is 1, invert
the bit on the target line.

Input Output
A - Target A’ A B A’ B’
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
B - Control B’ 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Note: The CN gate has a similar

behavior to the XOR gate with some
extra information to make it reversible.
 Quantum Gates - Controlled Controlled NOT (CCN)

A gate which operates on three qubits is called a

Controlled Controlled NOT (CCN) Gate. Iff the bits on
both of the control lines is 1,then the target bit is inverted.

Input Output
A B C A’ B’ C’
A - Target A’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
B - Control 1 B’ 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
C - Control 2 C’ 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
 A Universal Quantum Computer

 The CCN gate has been shown to be a universal reversible

logic gate as it can be used as a NAND gate.

A - Target A’ Input Output

A B C A’ B’ C’
0 0 0 0 0 0
B - Control 1 B’ 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
C - Control 2 C’ 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
When our target input is 1, our target
output is a result of a NAND of B and C.
Superposition and Interference of light
 Quantum Superposition

Superposition is the ability of a quantum system to be in

multiple states at the same time until it is measured.
Quantum Superposition
 Quantum entanglement
 Quantum entanglement means that aspects of one particle of an
entangled pair depend on aspects of the other particle.
 No matter how far apart they are or what lies between them.
 electrons or photons, and an aspect could be the state it is in, such as
whether it is “spinning” in one direction or another.
The strange part of quantum entanglement is that when you measure
something about one particle in an entangled pair, you immediately
know something about the other particle, even if they are millions
of light years apart.
This odd connection between the two particles is
instantaneous, seemingly breaking a fundamental law of the
universe.

Albert Einstein famously called the phenomenon “spooky action at

a distance.”
 Relationships among data - Entanglement

Entanglement is the ability of quantum systems to exhibit

correlations between states within a superposition.
Imagine two qubits, each in the state |0> + |1> (a superposition
of the 0 and 1.) We can entangle the two qubits such that the
measurement of one qubit is always correlated to the
measurement of the other qubit.
 Quantum teleportation

Quantum teleportation is a technique of transferring quantum

information from a sender at one location to a receiver some distance
away.
In quantum teleportation, the properties of quantum entanglement are
used to send a spin state (qubit) between observers without physically
moving the involved particle.
Quantum teleportation
 Quantum cryptography
Quantum cryptography is a method of
encryption that uses the naturally
occurring properties of quantum
mechanics to secure and transmit data
in a way that cannot be hacked.

Cryptography is the process of

encrypting and protecting data so that
only the person who has the right
secret key can decrypt it.
Quantum cryptography is an effort to allow two users of a common
communication channel to create a body of shared and secret
information. This information, which generally takes the form of a
random string of bits, can then be used as a conventional secret key
for secure communication.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle and quantum entanglement can be

exploited in as system of secure communication often referred to as
quantum cryptography.
Traditional cryptography is heavily based on mathematical theory
and computer science practice; cryptographic algorithms are
designed around computational hardness assumptions, making such
algorithms hard to break in practice by any adversary.

Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum

mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks.

The main practical problem with secret key encryption (traditional

cryptographic technique) is exchanging a secret key.
Quantum cryptography solves the problems of secret-key
cryptography by providing a way for two users who are in different
locations to securely establish a secret key and to detect if
overhearing has occurred.
 IBM Computing
Right now, IBM Quantum leads the world in quantum computing
hardware and software. Our roadmap is a clear, detailed plan to scale
quantum processors, overcome the scaling problem, and build the
hardware necessary for quantum advantage.

Quantum advantage will not be achieved with hardware alone. IBM

has also spent years advancing the software that will be necessary to
do useful work using quantum computers. We developed the Qiskit
quantum SDK. It is open-source, python-based, and by far the most
widely-used quantum SDK in the world.

We also developed Qiskit Runtime, the most powerful quantum

programming model in the world. (Learn more about both Qiskit and
Qiskit, Runtime, and how to get started, in the next section.)
 IBM Computing
Achieving quantum advantage will require new methods of
suppressing errors, increasing speed, and orchestrating quantum and
classical resources. The foundations of that work are being laid today
in Qiskit Runtime.

Qiskit is an open-source software development kit for working with

quantum computers at the level of circuits, pulses, and algorithms. It
provides tools for creating and manipulating quantum programs and
running them on prototype quantum devices on IBM Quantum
Experience
 APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM COMPUTING

 Artificial intelligence
 Better batteries
 Cleaner fertilization
 Cybersecurity
 Drug development
 Electronic materials discovery
 Financial modeling
 Solar capture
 Traffic optimization
 Weather forecasting and climate change