UNIT-3

What is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)?

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a standard that defines how to establish and maintain a
network conversation by which applications can exchange data.

TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers send packets of data to
each other. Together, TCP and IP are the basic rules that define the internet.

How Transmission Control Protocol works

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established and maintained
until the applications at each end have finished exchanging messages.

TCP performs the following actions:

 determines how to break application data into packets that networks can deliver;
 sends packets to, and accepts packets from, the network layer;
 manages flow control;
 handles retransmission of dropped or garbled packets, as it's meant to provide error-free data
transmission; and
 acknowledges all packets that arrive.

When a web server sends an HTML file to a client, it uses the hypertext transfer protocol
(HTTP) to do so. The HTTP program layer asks the TCP layer to set up the connection and send
the file. The TCP stack divides the file into data packets, numbers them and then forwards them
individually to the IP layer for delivery.

Although each packet in the transmission has the same source and destination IP address, packets
may be sent along multiple routes. The TCP program layer in the client computer waits until all
packets have arrived. It then acknowledges those it receives and asks for the retransmission of
any it does not, based on missing packet numbers. The TCP layer then assembles the packets into
a file and delivers the file to the receiving application.
What TCP is used for
TCP is used for organizing data in a way that ensures the secure transmission between the server
and client. It guarantees the integrity of data sent over the network, regardless of the amount. For
this reason, it is used to transmit data from other higher-level protocols that require all
transmitted data to arrive.

Examples of these protocols include the following:

 Secure Shell (SSH), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet: For peer-to-peer file sharing,
and, in Telnet's case, logging into another user's computer to access a file.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Internet Message
Access Protocol (IMAP): For sending and receiving email.
 HTTP: For web access.

These examples all exist at the application layer of the TCP/IP stack and send data downwards to
TCP on the transport layer.

History and Development of TCP/IP Model

This protocol is a result of the research and development by the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) during the 1960s. Given below are a few points which had played an
important role in the advancement of the TCP/IP model:

 A two-network TCP/IP communications test was conducted between Stanford and

University College London in 1975
 An important thing which resulted in promoting this model was when the US Department
of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking. This
was In March 1982
 In 1983, this structured protocol was adopted by ARPANET as a standard protocol
 Later on other Computer and IT companies including IBM, DEC, etc. had also adapted
the TCP/IP model as their standard communication protocol
 In 1989, the University of California has accepted the TCP/IP code for public domain
Gradually, this Internet protocol suite or the TCP/IP model was accepted across the globe as a
comprehensive framework for computer networking and Internet communication.

Layers of the TCP/IP Model

Unlike the OSI model which comprises seven layers, the TCP/IP model is structured with four
different layers. These four layers are:

1. Network Access Layer

2. Internet Layer
3. Host to Host Layer
4. Application Layer
Now, let us discuss each of these four layers in detail along with their functions as a part of the
protocol architecture.

1. Network Access Layer

 This is the bottom-most layer of the TCP/IP model architecture

 It is a combination of the Data Link and Physical Layer of the OSI model
 The physical transmission of data takes place at this layer
 Once the frames are transmitted by a network, encapsulating the IP datagram into these
frames is done in this layer
 Also, the mapping of IP address into physical address is done here
 Mainly, the function of this layer is to transmit the data between two devices, connected
in a network

2. Internet Layer

 It is the second layer of the TCP/IP model and this layer is parallel to the Network Layer
of the OSI Model, in terms of the structure
 Sending the data packets to their destination network is the main function of the Internet
layer
 The logical transmission of data takes place at this level
 There are three different protocols used in this layer. These include:

 IP: One of the most important protocols as it detects the IP address of a device
which is later used for internetwork connections. It is using this protocol that the
path with which the data shall be transmitted is decided. There are two common
IP versions which are used, To know the difference between IPv4 and IPv6, visit
the linked article.
 ARP: It stands for Address Resolution Protocol. The physical address from the IP
address can be determined using ARP.
 ICMP: It stands for Internet Control Message Protocol and notification regarding
datagram problems can be sent back to the user using this. Any issue with the
network is immediately notified to the user by ICMP. It can only inform the user
about the errors and cannot rectify the problem.

3. Host-To-Host Layer

 This layer is parallel to the transport layer of the OSI Model

 The error-free delivery of data is the main function of this layer
 There are two main protocols present in this layer:
  TCP: Another integral part, the Transmission Control Protocol is a reliable
communication protocol. It manager the flow of data, i.e. the sequence and
segmentation of the data
 UDP: It is a connection-free protocol which makes it cost-effective but less
reliable.

4. Application Layer

 The topic three layers of the OSI Model: Application, Presentation and Sessions, when
combined together, they perform similar functions as the Application Layer of the
TCP/IP model
 node-to-node communication based on the user-interface occurs here
 Multiple protocols are present in this layer, a few common ones have been mentioned
below in brief:

 HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol is used to manage the communication

between the server and web browsers
 NTP: Network Time Protocol can set one standard time source in our computer,
which enables sync between the server and the user
 TELNET: Telecommunication Network is used to have access to files present of
the Telnet network and manage them on internet
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol, as the name suggests allows easy transferring of
files
In TCP, the device sending the data connects to the device supposed to receive it. The
way TCP ports establish reliable connections is called a three-way handshake.

As the name implies, a three-way handshake requires three different interactions, which
come in the form of three messages: SYN→SYN-ACK→ACK.

The first is the SYN segment. The sending device sends out a SYN (synchronized
sequence number) message to try to communicate with the receiving computer. It is
trying to say, "Hello! Are you available to make a connection? "

If the receiving device is available to make a connection, it responds to the device

sending the connection request with a SYN-ACK segment. The SYN-ACK segment
acknowledges the connection request and sends out a synchronized sequence number in
return. In plain terms, the device is saying, "Yes, I acknowledge your request, and I am
willing to make a connection."

When this happens, the sending device sends an ACK segment to the receiving device,
telling it that it has acknowledged its message. Then a connection is formed, and it begins
to transfer data. When the data transmission has been confirmed and completed, the
connection is ended.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the Internet Protocol suite,
referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless
protocol. So, there is no need to establish a connection prior to data transfer. The
UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections establish over
the network.The UDP enables process to process communication.
Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant transport layer
protocol used with most of the Internet services; provides assured delivery,
reliability, and much more but all these services cost us additional overhead and
latency. Here, UDP comes into the picture. For real-time services like computer
gaming, voice or video communication, live conferences; we need UDP. Since high
performance is needed, UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of processing
delayed packets. There is no error checking in UDP, so it also saves bandwidth.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is more efficient in terms of both latency and
bandwidth.

Applications of UDP:
 Used for simple request-response communication when the size of data is less and
hence there is lesser concern about flow and error control.
 It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.
 UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP(Routing Information Protocol).
 Normally used for real-time applications which can not tolerate uneven delays between
sections of a received message.
 Following implementations uses UDP as a transport layer protocol:
 NTP (Network Time Protocol)
 DNS (Domain Name Service)
 BOOTP, DHCP.
 NNP (Network News Protocol)
 Quote of the day protocol
 TFTP, RTSP, RIP.
 The application layer can do some of the tasks through UDP-
 Trace Route
 Record Route
 Timestamp
 UDP takes a datagram from Network Layer, attaches its header, and sends it to the
user. So, it works fast.
 Actually, UDP is a null protocol if you remove the checksum field.
1. Reduce the requirement of computer resources.
2. When using the Multicast or Broadcast to transfer.
3. The transmission of Real-time packets, mainly in multimedia applications.

Features of UDP protocol

The following are the features of the UDP protocol:

o Transport layer protocol

UDP is the simplest transport layer communication protocol. It contains a minimum
amount of communication mechanisms. It is considered an unreliable protocol, and
it is based on best-effort delivery services. UDP provides no acknowledgment
mechanism, which means that the receiver does not send the acknowledgment for
the received packet, and the sender also does not wait for the acknowledgment for
the packet that it has sent.

o Connectionless

The UDP is a connectionless protocol as it does not create a virtual path to transfer
the data. It does not use the virtual path, so packets are sent in different paths
between the sender and the receiver, which leads to the loss of packets or received
out of order.

Ordered delivery of data is not guaranteed.

In the case of UDP, the datagrams are sent in some order will be received in the
same order is not guaranteed as the datagrams are not numbered.

o Ports

The UDP protocol uses different port numbers so that the data can be sent to the
correct destination. The port numbers are defined between 0 and 1023.

o Faster transmission

UDP enables faster transmission as it is a connectionless protocol, i.e., no virtual

path is required to transfer the data. But there is a chance that the individual
packet is lost, which affects the transmission quality. On the other hand, if the
packet is lost in TCP connection, that packet will be resent, so it guarantees the
delivery of the data packets.

o Acknowledgment mechanism

The UDP does have any acknowledgment mechanism, i.e., there is no handshaking
between the UDP sender and UDP receiver. If the message is sent in TCP, then the
receiver acknowledges that I am ready, then the sender sends the data. In the case
of TCP, the handshaking occurs between the sender and the receiver, whereas in
UDP, there is no handshaking between the sender and the receiver.

o Segments are handled independently.

Each UDP segment is handled individually of others as each segment takes different
path to reach the destination. The UDP segments can be lost or delivered out of
order to reach the destination as there is no connection setup between the sender
and the receiver.

o Stateless

It is a stateless protocol that means that the sender does not get the
acknowledgement for the packet which has been sent.
UDP Header Format

In UDP, the header size is 8 bytes, and the packet size is upto 65,535 bytes. But this packet
size is not possible as the data needs to be encapsulated in the IP datagram, and an IP
packet, the header size can be 20 bytes; therefore, the maximum of UDP would be 65,535
minus 20. The size of the data that the UDP packet can carry would be 65,535 minus 28 as 8
bytes for the header of the UDP packet and 20 bytes for IP header.

The UDP header contains four fields:

o Source port number: It is 16-bit information that identifies which port is going t
send the packet.
o Destination port number: It identifies which port is going to accept the
information. It is 16-bit information which is used to identify application-level service
on the destination machine.
o Length: It is 16-bit field that specifies the entire length of the UDP packet that
includes the header also. The minimum value would be 8-byte as the size of the
header is 8 bytes.
o Checksum: It is a 16-bits field, and it is an optional field. This checksum field checks
whether the information is accurate or not as there is the possibility that the
information can be corrupted while transmission. It is an optional field, which means
that it depends upon the application, whether it wants to write the checksum or not.
If it does not want to write the checksum, then all the 16 bits are zero; otherwise, it
writes the checksum. In UDP, the checksum field is applied to the entire packet, i.e.,
header as well as data part whereas, in IP, the checksum field is applied to only the
header field.

Limitations

o It provides an unreliable connection delivery service. It does not provide any services
of IP except that it provides process-to-process communication.
o The UDP message can be lost, delayed, duplicated, or can be out of order.
 o It does not provide a reliable transport delivery service. It does not provide any
acknowledgment or flow control mechanism. However, it does provide error control
to some extent.

How does UDP work?

Like all networking protocols, UDP is a standardized method for transferring data
between two computers in a network. Compared to other protocols, UDP
accomplishes this process in a simple fashion: it sends packets (units of data
transmission) directly to a target computer, without establishing a connection first,
indicating the order of said packets, or checking whether they arrived as intended.
(UDP packets are referred to as ‘datagrams’.)

UDP is faster but less reliable than TCP, another common transport protocol. In a
TCP communication, the two computers begin by establishing a connection via an
automated process called a ‘handshake.’ Only once this handshake has been
completed will one computer actually transfer data packets to the other.

UDP communications do not go through this process. Instead, one computer can
simply begin sending data to the other:
M2M and WSN Protocols

A WP (work package) framework of ongoing works has been proposed.

A work package is a group of related tasks within a project.

WP1-
Architectural Reference Model

WP2 - Orchestration & Integration into Future Internet Service Layer

WP6 -
WP3 - Protocol suite Requirements,
Validations &
Stakeholder Interaction
WP4 -
Resolution & Identification

WP5 -
IoT Object Platforms

WP7 - Use cases

WP9 - Management & Coordination

IP STACK
Application 1 Application 2 Application 3 Application 4

TCP/UDP

IP/ICMP

GPRS/3G 802.11 802.15.4 Ethernet ...

IPSO (Internet Protocol for Smart Objects

The emerging application space for smart objects requires scalable and interoperable
communication mechanisms that support future innovation as the application space
grows.
IP has proven itself a long-lived, stable, and highly scalable communication technology
that supports a wide range of applications, devices, and underlying communication
technologies.
The IP stack is open, lightweight, versatile, ubiquitous, scalable, manageable, stable, and
end-to-end. It can run on tiny, battery-operated embedded devices. IP therefore has all
the qualities to make the Internet of Things a reality, connecting billions of
communicating devices.
A smart object is defined by IPSO as
■An intelligent (RFID) tag
■A sensor: device that measures a physical quantity and converts it to an analog or
 digital signal, such as power
consumption and quality, vibration of an engine, pollu- tion, motion detection,
temperature
■An actuator: device that controls a set of equipment,
such as controls and/or modulates the flow of a gas or liquid, controls
electricity distribution, performs a mechanical operation
■An embedded device: a purpose-built connected device
that performs a specific function, such as a factory robotic arm, vending machine,
smart grid analyzer
■Any combination of the above features to form a more
complex entity.

The Mobile IP protocol is a related IETF-proposed standard that provides a network

layer solution to node mobility across IPv4 (Mobile IPv4) and IPv6 (Mobile IPv6)
networks. Mobile IP allows a node to change its point of attachment to the Internet
without having to change its IP address.

SHIM6 a serverless Mobile IPv6 protocol, allows two communicating nodes to

overcome connection loss problems that may arise if one node changes its IP address
(locator) dur- ing an established communication.

NEMO:
NEMO is an extension of Mobile IP that enables an entire network to change its
attachment point to the Internet. NEMO works by moving the mobility functionality
from Mobile IP mobile nodes to a moving network’s router. The router is able to change
its attachment point to the Internet in a manner that is transparent to attached nodes.

SENSINODE provides embedded net- working software and hardware products based
on IP-based 6LoWPAN technology for demanding enterprise applications.

NanoStack 2.0 is an advanced 6LoWPAN protocol stack software product for 2.4 GHz
radios. The NanoRouter™ 2.0 platform includes software and hardware solutions for
6LoWPAN-Internet routing infrastructure.
M2M Standardization Task Force (MSTF)
The high-level M2M architecture from MSTF does include fixed and other noncellular
wireless networks, which means it’s a generic, holistic IoT architecture even though it is called
M2M architecture
This is a more comprehensive approach than the 3GPP’s MTC effort

Considering 3GPP is only one of the SDOs in the MSTF, this makes sense and good results
are much anticipated from MSTF
Other M2M standards activities include the following:

■Data transport protocol standards: M2MXML, JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)

■Extend OMA DM to support M2M devices protocol management objects
■M2M device management, standardize M2M gateway
■M2M security and fraud detection
■Network API’s M2M service capabilities
■Charging standards
■MULTI IMSI, M2M services that do not have MSISDN
■IP addressing issues for devices IPV6
■Remote diagnostics and monitoring, remote provisioning and discovery
 ■Remote management of devices behind a gateway or firewall
■Open REST-based API for M2M applications

IEEE 1451 is a set of smart transducer interface standards developed by the IEEE
Instrumentation and Measurement Society’s Sensor Technology Technical Committee that
describe a set of open, common, network-independent communication interfaces for
connecting transducers (sensors or actuators) to microprocessors, instrumentation systems,
and control/field networks. One of the key elements of these standards is the definition of
transducer electronic data sheets (TEDS) for each transducer. The TEDS is a memory
device attached to the transducer, which stores transducer identification, calibration,
correction data, and manufacturer-related information.

Cross-network (e.g., between Bluetooth and ZigBee) stan- dards are not as
proliferate in the WSN community com- pared to other computing systems, which
make most WSN systems incapable of direct communication with each other.
The Semantic Sensor Web (SSW) is an approach to annotating sensor data with
spatial, temporal,
OGC SWE (Sensor Web Enablement).
■SWE Common—common data models and schema
■SensorML—models and schema for sensor systems and processes surrounding
measurements
■Observations & Measurements (O&M)—models and schema for packaging
observation values
■Transducer Markup Language (TML)—models and schema for multiplexed
data from sensor systems

The European Union SENSEI [ project creates an open, business driven

architecture that fundamentally addresses the scalability problems
■A highly scalable architectural framework with corre- sponding protocol solutions
that enable easy plug-and- play integration of a large number of globally
distributed WSAN into a global system, providing support for net- work and
information management, security, privacy and trust, and accounting
■An open service interface and corresponding semantic specification to unify the
access to context information and actuation services offered by the system for
services and applications
■Efficient WSAN island solutions consisting of a set of cross-optimized and energy-
aware protocol stacks includ- ing an ultra-low-power multi-mode transceiver
■Pan European test platform, enabling large-scale experi- mental evaluation of the
SENSEI results and execution
of field trials, providing a tool for long-term evaluation of WSAN integration into
the NGN

ISO/IEC JTC1 WG7 (Working Group on Sensor Networks),

The architecture is defined through the following set of documents:

■ISO/IEC 29182 Part 1: General overview and requirements

■ISO/IEC 29182 Part 2: Vocabulary/terminology
■ISO/IEC 29182 Part 3: Reference architecture views
■ISO/IEC 29182 Part 4: Entity models
■ISO/IEC 29182 Part 5: Interface definitions
■ISO/IEC 29182 Part 6: Application profiles
 ■ISO/IEC 29182 Part 7: Interoperability guidelines

SCADA and RFID Protocols

What is SCADA ?
• SCADA is normally a software package designed to display information, log data
and show alarms.
• This can be graphical and tabular and can involve words and pictures (or mimics).
• The software would normally be installed on a computer and all the various signals
would be wired back to the central point (CPU), or marshalled and gathered using some
form of bus system or direct wired.
SCADA protocols
• Modbus – A widely used protocol for connecting industrial electronic devices.
• DNP3 (Distributed Network Protocol 3) – Used in power and water utility systems.
• IEC 60870-5-104 – Common in European electrical grids.
• IEC 61850 – Used for substation automation.
• OPC UA (Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture) – A modern,
secure protocol for interoperability between industrial devices.
• Profibus/Profinet – Industrial automation protocols for field devices.
• MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) – A lightweight IoT-friendly
protocol for SCADA applications.
• BACnet – Used in building automation systems.

• One of IOT pillars to represent whole industrial automation arena.

• In recent years, network based industrial automation has greatly evolved With the
use of intelligent electronic devices or IOT devices in our terms in substations and
power stations.
• IEEE created standard specification called standard C37.1 for SCADA and
automation systems in 2007.
• IRIG stands for inter range instrument group time code.
• EMS stands for energy management systems
• DMS stands for Distribution management systems
• A firewall can be hardware or software that controls a devices secure in flow
and outflow data.
• OPC stands for OLE(object linking and embedding ) for process control
application.
• The standard specifies the communication of real time plant data between control
devices from different manufacturers.
• OPC originated from DDE(dynamic data Exchange) technologies based on DOS
for PC’s.
• providing the ability for pc to run multiple applications simultaneously and a
standard mechanism for those applications to exchange data at runtime.

 SCADA software had the greatest impact for the transition from DDE (dynamic
data Exchange) to OPC OLE(object linking and embedding ) for process control
application.
 OPC was designed to provide a common bridge for windows based software
applications and process control hardware.
What is RFID technology and how does it work?
 An RFID or radio frequency identification system consists of two main components, a
tag attached to the object to be identified, and a reader that reads the tag.
 A reader consists of a radio frequency module and an antenna that generates a
high frequency electromagnetic field. Whereas the tag is usually a passive device (it
does not have a battery). It consists of a microchip that stores and processes
information, and an antenna for receiving and transmitting a signal.
 When the tag is brought close to the reader, the reader generates an
electromagnetic field. This causes electrons to move through the tag’s antenna and
subsequently powers the chip.

Types of RFID Frequencies:

1. Low Frequency (LF, 125 kHz – 134.2 kHz)
Short-range (up to 10 cm).
Used for animal tracking, access control.
1. High Frequency (HF, 13.56 MHz)
Medium-range (up to 1 meter).
Used in smart cards, library book tracking.
1. Ultra High Frequency (UHF, 860-960 MHz)
Long-range (up to 10 meters).
Used in supply chain management, retail inventory tracking.
 RFID protocols and data formats are relatively well defined mostly by EPC(Electronic
product code ) Global.
 common RFID protocols are PML (physical markup Language), object naming
service Edge ware, EPC information service, Application Level etc.

1. ISO/IEC 18000-6 (EPC Gen2) – A widely used UHF RFID standard.

2. ISO 14443 – Used for contactless smart cards (e.g., NFC and payment systems).
3. ISO 15693 – Used for high-frequency (HF) RFID applications like library book
tracking.
4. RAIN RFID – A global standard for UHF RFID applications.
5. LF RFID (125 kHz, 134.2 kHz) – Used in animal tracking and access control.

It defines two types of contactless cards one allows for communications at distances up
to 10 cm.
An alternative standard for contactless smart cards is ISO/IEC 15693 which allows
communications at distances up to 50 cm.
1. ISO 14443 (NFC Standard)
Type: Contactless smart card protocol.
Features:
Supports Near Field Communication (NFC).
Works at 13.56 MHz frequency.
Usage: Payment cards (Visa, Mastercard), mobile payments.
2. ISO 15693
Type: HF RFID standard for long-range applications.
Features:
Supports reading at distances up to 1.5 meters.
Usage: Library book tracking, medical device tracking.

Issues with IOT standardization:

A part from the standardization efforts that can be categorized as one of four pillars there are
also standardization efforts from major vertical IOT application such as smart grid and
telematics.
 Even though some of the IOT standard organizations have cooperation and interaction.
 The following two issues for the IOT standardization in particular and the ICT
standardization.
1. IOT standardization is a highly decentralized activity. How can the individual activities
of the network of extremely heterogeneous standards.
2. It will become essential to allow all interested stakeholders to participate in the
standardization process toward the IOT and to voice their respective requirements and
concerns.
1. Lack of Universal Standards
Different organizations (IEEE, ISO, IETF, W3C, etc.) define IoT protocols independently.
No single global authority governs IoT standards.
Devices from different manufacturers may not communicate seamlessly.
Example:
Zigbee and Z-Wave are both IoT wireless protocols, but they are not compatible with each
other.
2. Security and Privacy Challenges
No standardized security framework across all IoT devices.
Weak encryption and authentication mechanisms in many IoT devices.
Privacy risks due to data collection from connected devices.
Example:
Smart home devices often lack end-to-end encryption, making them vulnerable to
hacking.
3. Interoperability Issues
IoT devices use different communication protocols (MQTT, CoAP, HTTP, OPC UA).
Varying network technologies (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRaWAN, NB-IoT) cause compatibility
problems.
Example:
A smart thermostat using Zigbee cannot directly communicate with a smart light bulb using
Wi-Fi.
4. Fragmented Communication Protocols
IoT devices operate on different network layers (LPWAN, cellular, Wi-Fi, etc.).
No unified protocol for seamless communication.
Example:
LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) is good for long-distance IoT applications,
but it doesn’t work well with Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

5. Data Standardization Problems

Different IoT vendors use proprietary data formats.
Lack of common data models affects cloud integration and analytics.
Example:
Smart meters from different manufacturers may store energy consumption data in
incompatible formats.
6. Regulatory and Compliance Challenges
Countries have different IoT regulations, making global adoption difficult.
Data privacy laws (GDPR, CCPA) conflict with some IoT data collection practices.
Example:
Europe’s GDPR restricts data collection, but many IoT devices do not have privacy
settings.
7. Scalability Issues
IoT networks need to handle billions of devices efficiently.
Current standards (IPv4) have limited address space, forcing a transition to IPv6.
Example:
Smart cities require millions of connected sensors, but traditional IPv4 networks cannot
support so many unique device addresses.
8. Power Consumption and Connectivity Constraints
IoT devices use different power-efficient communication protocols.
No universal battery life optimization standard exists.
Example:
NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT) is energy-efficient but not compatible with Wi-Fi-based IoT
devices.

9. Vendor Lock-in and Proprietary Ecosystems

Some IoT companies create closed ecosystems, forcing customers to use only their
products.
Example:
Apple HomeKit works best with Apple-certified devices, making integration with third-
party IoT devices difficult.

10. Ethical and Social Concerns

IoT data collection raises surveillance and ethical issues.
No global standard defines IoT device responsibility in case of failures.
Example:
Self-driving cars rely on IoT sensors, but no universal legal framework determines
who is responsible in case of an accident.

The only, or at least better, possible solution to address these chaotic situations is to try
to standardize the omni present middleware and the XML-based data representation
from across-industry
organizations such as World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),
Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS), and
others
 OASIS and W3C are web-oriented standard organizations.
 Their expertise makes them capable of doing high-level, segment-independent
WoT standardization.
Potential Solutions for IoT Standardization
1. Develop Global IoT Standards – IEEE, ISO, and IETF must work together to create
universal frameworks.
2. Use Open-Source Protocols – Encourage adoption of MQTT, CoAP, and OPC UA to
improve interoperability.
3. Implement Strong Security Frameworks – Enforce encryption, authentication, and data
privacy policies.
4. Adopt Unified Data Models – Define a common data structure to improve device
compatibility.
5. Governments and Industry Collaboration – Establish regulatory bodies to ensure IoT
compliance worldwide.