CCB342: SOIL MECHANICS

Chapter Soil Formation and Soil

1
Description

by: Dr. Firoozi University of Botswana

Department of Civil Engineering
Introduction to Soil Composition and
Particle Size
This chapter introduces the intricate nature of soils, focusing
on their composition and the distribution of particle sizes,
which significantly influence their load-bearing and settlement
characteristics.

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Learning Outcomes:
• Understand and describe soil formation.
• Describe the composition of soils.
• Determine and interpret particle size distribution.
• Analyze and understand grading curves.

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Definitions of Key Terms
Minerals and Rocks: Fundamental elements and aggregates
forming the solid structure of the earth.

Soil Definitions:
• Effective Particle Size (D10): Diameter at which 10% of the
soil particles are smaller.
• Average Particle Diameter (D50): Represents the median
soil particle size.
• Uniformity Coefficient (Cu): Measures the spread of particle
sizes.
• Coefficient of Curvature (CC): Indicates the shape of the
particle size distribution curve.
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Introduction to Soil
Soil, a term with diverse meanings, varies significantly across
different professional fields. To geologists, it represents the
layers of loose material from the surface down to solid rock,
formed by the weathering of rocks. Engineers view soil as a
material that can be manipulated without the need for heavy
machinery. Meanwhile, pedologists and agricultural experts
have their own specific definitions tailored to their fields of
study.

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Geological Perspective on Soil Origin
Soil originates from the disintegration of rocks, influenced by a
range of environmental and geological processes. This
presentation adopts the geological perspective to explore soil
formation while acknowledging the engineering approach to
classify and assess soil properties for practical applications.

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Classification of Parent Rocks
Types of Rocks and Soil Formation:
• Igneous Rocks: Formed from magma, examples include
granite and basalt.
• Sedimentary Rocks: Created from sediment accumulation in
water bodies, examples include limestone and sandstone.
• Metamorphic Rocks: Altered by extreme heat or pressure,
examples include marble and slate.

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Factors Influencing Soil Formation
Key Factors:
• Composition of Parent Rock: Determines the chemical
and physical properties of the soil.
• Climatic Conditions: Temperature and humidity play
crucial roles in weathering processes.
• Terrain Features: Topography, vegetation, and exposure
influence erosion and deposition.
• Time Duration: The length of exposure to specific
conditions affects soil properties.
• External Influences: Human activities, natural disasters,
and other disturbances can rapidly
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Summary
The properties of soil are a direct consequence of its origin,
the nature of the parent rock, and the environmental
conditions to which it has been exposed. This foundational
knowledge is essential for applications in geology, engineering,
and agriculture.

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The Effects of Weathering
Overview of Weathering Processes: Weathering involves
several natural processes, including the impact of wind, rain,
frost, temperature changes, and gravity. These processes
uniquely alter different types of rock, producing various soil
characteristics.
Frost Action: Water expansion within rock pore spaces
during freezing leads to flaking, creating sharp, angular debris.
Wind and Chemical Actions: Wind-driven attrition rounds
off particles, whereas chemical reactions can break down
specific minerals, leaving resistant ones like quartz and
muscovite intact. 2/5/2025 12
Take, for example, the igneous rock granite, which comprises
essentially the minerals quartz, the feldspars orthoclase and
plagioclase and the micas muscovite and biotite. Both quartz
and muscovite are very resistant to chemical decomposition
and emerge from the process unchanged, whereas the other
minerals are broken down (Figure 1).

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Figure 1 The weathering of granite

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The Effects of Transport on Soil
Residual Soils: Found in stable locations like flat tropical
terrains, these soils are rich in minerals left by predominant
chemical weathering.
Transported Soils: Sorting of particles occurs during
movement, influenced by the medium (e.g., wind, water, ice)
and the particle's nature and size. Examples include alluvial
soils from rivers, which are well-sorted and vary from
boulders in upstream areas to fine silts in deltas.
Glacial Transport: Glaciers transport large boulders, grinding
them into fine 'rock-flour' as they move, resulting in a wide
range of particle sizes in deposits like moraine.
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Mineral Composition of Soil
Three-Phase Soil Model: Soils generally consist of a mix of
inorganic mineral particles, water, and air.
Rock Fragments and Mineral Grains: These vary from
larger, easily identifiable rock fragments to finer mineral grains
down to clay size. The soil's overall stability and strength
depend significantly on the composition and condition of these
particles.

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Figure 2 Three-phase soil model

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Soil Types and Their Characteristics
Coarse Soils: Characterized by particle sizes larger than 0.06
mm, such as sands and gravels. These particles may be rounded
or angular, consisting of various minerals like quartz, jasper, and
mica.
Fine Soils: Smaller than 0.06 mm, these soils, including silts
and clays, are typically flaky and contain very fine mineral
oxides and possibly organic matter.

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Importance of Organic Matter and
Water in Soils

Organic Matter: Derived from decayed plant and animal

material, organic matter like humus and peat affects soil
properties by increasing compressibility and affecting water
absorption, posing challenges in engineering applications.
Water in Soil: Plays a crucial role in determining soil
behavior under load, affecting compressibility and shear
strength due to its incompressibility and ability to dissolve and
transport materials.

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Role of Air in Soils
Even in dry or fully saturated conditions, soils contain varying
amounts of air and water vapor, impacting their compressibility
and the behavior of water vapor under temperature changes.

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Composition of Soils
Soil Formation: Soils originate from the physical and
chemical weathering of rocks, often containing minor organic
contents from decayed plant and animal matter.

Types of Weathering:
• Physical Weathering: Involves size reduction without
changing the rock’s composition, driven by natural
processes like erosion and temperature fluctuations.
• Chemical Weathering: Alters both size and chemical
structure through reactions like hydration and oxidation.
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Residual and Transported Soils
Residual Soils: Remain at the site of weathering, retaining
many elements of the parent rock.

Transported Soils:
• Alluvial Soils: Moved and deposited by water, often
differing significantly from the parent rock.
• Characteristics: Alluvial soils typically show layered
profiles, heavily utilized in construction.

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Classification of Soil Types

Soil Textures and Types:

• Coarse-Grained Soils: Includes gravels and sands,
characterized by a gritty texture.
• Fine-Grained Soils: Comprises silts and clays, known for
their smooth feel.

Importance of Texture: Texture affects both the appearance

and the mechanical behavior under loads, especially for fine-
grained soils.
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Diverse Soil Descriptions
Alluvial, Calcareous, and Caliche Soils: Defined by their
formation processes and mineral content.
Eolian and Expansive Soils: Characterized by their
depositional environment and physical reactions to moisture.
Glacial Soils and Loess: Highlight the range of particle sizes
from boulders to fine dust, influenced by glacial and wind
activities.
Lateritic and Marine Soils: Illustrate the impact of
environmental conditions like tropical weathering and marine
deposition.
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Summary of Soil Composition
The diverse nature of soil composition and particle sizes
underscores the necessity for careful analysis in engineering
applications, ensuring structures are built on suitable
foundations with appropriate considerations for soil
characteristics.

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Soil Minerals
Introduction: Minerals are the solid constituents of soil,
classified by their chemical composition and structure. Most
geotechnically relevant minerals are composed of oxygen and
silicon, reflecting their abundance on Earth.
Quartz: Dominant in coarse-grained soils, quartz is a durable
mineral consisting of silicon dioxide, forming naturally angular
particles that may become rounded through weathering.

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Clay Minerals
Phyllosilicates Structure: Clay minerals are primarily
composed of phyllosilicates, which are layers of silicate
tetrahedrons joined by shared oxygen ions. These structures
form thin, platy particles characteristic of fine-grained soils.

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Types of Clay Minerals:
• Kaolinite: Composed of one silica sheet linked to an
alumina sheet, known for its tight hydrogen bonding and
prevalence in humid tropical regions.
• Illite: Features a structure of alumina sheets sandwiched
between silicate sheets, stabilized by potassium ions.
• Montmorillonite: Similar to illite but with layers held by
weak van der Waals forces, known for its ability to swell
significantly when wet due to its high water absorption
capacity.

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Figure 3 (a) Silica tetrahedrons, (b) silica sheets, (c) single aluminum octahedrons,
and (d) aluminum sheets 2/5/2025 29
Figure 4 Structure of (a) kaolinite, (b) illite, and (c) montmorillonite

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Surface Chemistry and Soil Behavior
Surface Area and Adsorption: Fine-grained soils like clays
have extremely high specific surface areas, leading to significant
surface forces that influence soil behavior, including water
retention and cation attraction.
Diffuse Double Layer: This layer forms around clay particles
due to the attraction between negatively charged soil particles
and positively charged ions in water, affecting soil plasticity and
chemical interactions.

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Figure 5 Diffuse double layer

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Interactions and Impacts of Soil
Minerals
Attracting and Repelling Forces:
• London–van der Waals Forces: Attractive forces that
decrease with the square of the distance between particles.
• Ionic Repulsion: Occurs when the negatively charged
diffuse double layers of adjacent particles overlap, causing
repulsion.
Environmental Impact: Understanding the surface
chemistry of fine-grained soils is crucial for addressing issues
like soil contamination and the behavior of toxic compounds in
soil environments. 2/5/2025 33
Practical Applications
Engineering Considerations: Knowledge of soil mineralogy
is essential for predicting and managing soil behavior under
various environmental conditions, particularly for construction
and environmental remediation.
Soil Management: Effective soil management requires an
understanding of the mineral composition and the interaction
between soil particles and water, crucial for addressing
challenges in civil engineering and environmental science.

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Conclusion
The mineral composition of soils dictates many of their
physical and chemical properties. By understanding these
properties, engineers and scientists can better predict soil
behavior and develop more effective strategies for managing
soils in natural and engineered environments.

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Soil Fabric and Structure
Introduction to Soil Fabric: Soil particles, particularly
minerals, are assumed to be rigid and form structural
frameworks known as soil fabric during deposition. The
arrangement of these particles is influenced significantly by the
deposition environment, particularly the electrochemical
conditions.

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Types of Soil Fabric:
• Flocculated Structure: Occurs in saltwater
environments, where particles are oriented parallel to each
other.
• Dispersed Structure: Found in freshwater environments,
with particles oriented perpendicular to each other.

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Figure 6 Soil fabric

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Influence of Environmental and
Loading Conditions
Environmental Impact: The initial deposition environment
crucially impacts the soil fabric, imprinting a memory of the
soil's formation conditions.
Loading Effects: Subsequent loads, whether tectonic or due
to construction activities, can permanently alter the soil fabric.
This modification reflects in the soil's ability to bear loads and
its response to environmental changes.

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Voids and Soil Compression
Voids in Soil: The spaces between soil particles, filled with
water, air, or cementitious materials, play a critical role in soil
behavior under load.
Compression and Dilation: Changing the void volume
through applied loads can lead to soil compression or dilation.
The rate and extent of settlement in buildings and other
structures depend on the interconnectivity of these voids and
the ease with which water and air can be expelled.

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Packing of Coarse-Grained Soils
Loosest Packing: Characterized by a linear stacking of
spherical particles, resulting in maximum void spaces.
Densest Packing: Occurs in a staggered pattern, minimizing
void spaces and enhancing soil stability.

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Figure 7 Loose and dense packing of spheres

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Key Points on Soil Composition and
Behavior
Summary of Soil Types:
• Coarse-grained soils, like gravels and sands, mainly consist of
quartz and are less susceptible to chemical changes.
• Fine-grained soils, including silts and clays, contain minerals
like kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite, which have
significant implications for soil behavior due to their layered
structure and water interactions.

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Weathering Effects: Both physical and chemical weathering
shape soil properties by altering size and composition.
Chemical weathering, in particular, affects the chemical
structure of parent rocks, creating diverse soil types with
varying behaviors.
Importance of Adsorbed Water: A thin layer of water
bonded to mineral surfaces profoundly influences the physical
and mechanical properties of fine-grained soils, affecting
everything from plasticity to load-bearing capacity.

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Determination of Particle Size in Soils
Understanding particle size distribution is crucial for evaluating
soil properties and behavior. Different methods are used for
coarse-grained and fine-grained soils due to their size
differences.

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Particle Size Analysis for Coarse-
Grained Soils
Sieve Analysis Method: This method involves using a stack
of sieves with progressively finer meshes to separate and
weigh soil particles.
• Procedure: A known weight of soil is sieved through the
stack, starting with the largest mesh on top. After shaking,
the soil retained on each sieve is weighed, and the
percentage of soil retained is calculated.
• Gradation Curve: The results are plotted on a gradation
curve, showing the percentage of particles finer than each
sieve size on a logarithmic scale.
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Figure 8 Stack of sieves

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Figure 9 Particle size distribution curves

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Hydrometer Test for Fine-Grained Soils
Due to the small size of particles in fine-grained soils, like silts
and clays, sieve analysis is ineffective. The hydrometer test is a
common laboratory method used to determine the size
distribution of these soils.
• Procedure: Soil is mixed with water to form a suspension.
The settling time of particles is measured using a
hydrometer, which indicates the density of the suspension.
• Calibration and Corrections: The hydrometer must be
calibrated for temperature and the specific gravity of the
suspended solids. Corrections are applied based on test
conditions to ensure accuracy.
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Figure 10 Hydrometer in soil-water suspension
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Typically, a hydrometer test is conducted by taking a small
quantity of a dry, fine-grained soil (approximately 50 grams)
and thoroughly mixing it with distilled water to form a paste.
The paste is placed in a 1000 mL (=1 liter = 1000 cm3) glass
cylinder, and distilled water is added to bring the level to the
1000 mL mark. The glass cylinder is then repeatedly shaken
and inverted before being placed in a constant-temperature
bath. A hydrometer is placed in the glass cylinder and a clock is
simultaneously started. At different times, the hydrometer is
read. The diameter D (mm) of the particle at time tD (minute)
is calculated from Stokes’s law as

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Significance of Particle Size in Soil
Engineering
Engineering Properties: The particle size distribution
significantly influences the engineering properties of soils.
Coarse-grained soils, primarily composed of quartz, are less
affected by changes in water content compared to fine-grained
soils.
Behavior of Fine-Grained Soils: Silts and clays differ in
strength, deformation properties, and water absorption
capacities. Silts tend to become powdery when dry, whereas
clays are more likely to crack and become brittle.
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Advanced Techniques for Particle Size
Analysis
For more precise measurements in fine-grained soils,
techniques such as light scattering are employed. These
methods provide a more detailed understanding of soil texture
and its impact on various properties.

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Figure 9 Particle size distribution curves

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Conclusion
Accurate determination of soil particle size is essential for
assessing soil suitability for various construction and
geotechnical applications. Both traditional methods like sieving
and hydrometer tests and advanced techniques play critical
roles in defining soil characteristics.

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Characterization of Soils Based on
Particle Size
Purpose: Particle size is a fundamental property that
influences the classification, behavior, and engineering suitability
of soils.
Grading Curve: Used for textural classification, it helps
delineate soil types based on the percentage of different
particle sizes.

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Soil Classification Systems
Various systems classify soils by particle size for specific
engineering purposes.
• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): Widely
used in the United States.
• ASTM Modification of USCS: Known as ASTM-USCS, it
categorizes soils into coarse-grained and fine-grained based
on particle size thresholds.
• AASHTO System: Developed by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

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Coarse-Grained vs. Fine-Grained Soils
Classification Criteria:
• Coarse-Grained Soils: More than 50% of the particles
are larger than 0.075 mm.
• Fine-Grained Soils: More than 50% of the particles are
finer than 0.075 mm.
Subcategories:
• Gravels and Sands: Typically coarse-grained.
• Silts and Clays: Generally fine-grained.

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Importance of Fines Content
The percentage of fines (particles passing the No. 200 sieve)
can dramatically affect the soil's response to loading.
• High Fines Content: Soils behave more like fine-grained
soils, impacting load-bearing capacity and settlement
characteristics.
• Low Fines Content: Minimal influence on soil behavior,
maintaining more stable properties.

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Particle Size Distribution Curves
Represents the distribution of particle sizes in a soil.
Key Coefficients:
• Uniformity Coefficient (Cu): Indicates the range of
particle sizes; calculated as the ratio of D60 to D10.
• Coefficient of Curvature (CC): Provides a measure of
the gradation curve's shape, calculated using D30, D60, and
D10.

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Curve Interpretation:
• Well-Graded Soils: Exhibit a flat gradation curve,
indicating a variety of particle sizes.
• Poorly Graded Soils: Show a steep curve, suggesting
limited particle size range.
• Gap-Graded Soils: Characterized by sudden changes in
the slope of the gradation curve.

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Engineering Implications of Soil
Textures
• Coarse-Grained Soils: Known for good load-bearing
capacities and drainage qualities, ideal for construction and
foundational uses.
• Fine-Grained Soils: Characterized by poor load-bearing
capacities and drainage, influenced more by mineralogical
factors than particle size alone.

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Key points

1. Fine-grained soils have much larger surface areas than

coarse-grained soils and are responsible for the major physical
and mechanical differences between coarse-grained and fine-
grained soils.
2. The engineering properties of fine-grained soils depend
mainly on mineralogical factors.

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3. Coarse-grained soils have good load-bearing capacities and
good drainage qualities. Changes in moisture conditions do not
significantly affect the volume-change characteristics under
static loading.
4. Fine-grained soils have low load-bearing capacities and poor
drainage qualities. Changes in moisture conditions strongly
influence the volume-change characteristics and strength of
fine-grained soils.

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SUMMARY
Soils are derived from the weathering of rocks by physical and
chemical processes. The main groups of soils for engineering
purposes from these processes are coarse-grained soils —
sand and gravels—and fine-grained soils—silts and clays.
Particle size is sufficient to identify coarse-grained soils. Fine-
grained soils require mineralogical characterization in addition
to particle size for identification. Coarse-grained and fine-
grained soils have different engineering properties. Moisture
content changes strongly influence the behavior of fine-grained
soils. Moisture content changes do not significantly influence
the behavior of coarse-grained soils under static loading.
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