THE LIVED EXPERIENCE OF EDUCATORS WHO TEACH STUDENTS WHO

HAVE ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD): A

PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY

BY

MICHELLE ARMENTA

A dissertation submitted to City University of Seattle

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
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2024
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© Copyright by Michelle Armenta 2024

All Rights Reserved

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 SIGNATURE PAGE

This dissertation has been examined and approved.

______________________________________________________5/17/24____________
Abigail Nubla-Kung, PhD, Committee Chair Date

________________________________________________________________________
5/24/24
Benjamin Gaines, EdD, Committee Member Date

5/25/2024

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________________________________________________________________________
Cassandra Smith, EdD, Committee Member Date
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________________________________________________________________________
Vicki Butler, EdD, Dean Date
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 DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to educators, students, families, and communities working

together to improve the learning environment for each student.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to wholeheartedly thank my family for their continuous support

throughout my educational endeavors. I would like to thank my parents for always

encouraging me to follow my dreams. I would like to thank my husband for loving me

each day. I would like to thank my children for being my inspiration each day. Thank you

to my sister for your support while we accomplish our education together. Joe, Megan,

Carson, Cameron, Israel, Keira, Travis, Dad, Mom, and Cari, I could not have

accomplished this without you!

Thank you to my friends and coworkers for your patience and support throughout

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my education. I appreciate the passion, excitement, and love you provide daily in your
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classrooms. Thank you for sharing your love of education with me.

I would like to thank my dissertation chair and committee for your support and
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feedback throughout this process. I am grateful for your encouragement and words of

wisdom along the way.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................................v

LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................x

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY...........................................................1

Study Background/Foundation ................................................................................3

Current State of the Field in which the Problem Exists ...............................4

Historical Background .................................................................................5

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Deficiencies in the Evidence ........................................................................7
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Key Theories ..............................................................................................10

Problem Statement .................................................................................................11

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Audience ....................................................................................................12

Specific Leadership Problem .....................................................................13

Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................13

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Methodology and Research Design Overview ......................................................14

Research Questions ................................................................................................18

Study Limitations ...................................................................................................18

Study Delimitations ...............................................................................................19

Definitions of Key Terms ......................................................................................20

Summary ................................................................................................................20

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................22

Challenges of Children With ADHD .....................................................................22

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 Attention Difficulties .................................................................................23

Hyperactivity..............................................................................................24

Impulsivity .................................................................................................24

Sensory Processing ....................................................................................25

Thought Disorder .......................................................................................25

Academic Achievement and ADHD ..........................................................26

Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Difficulties .........................................27

Supports for Children With ADHD .......................................................................28

Medical Intervention ..................................................................................29

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Parent and Teacher Training ......................................................................30
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Supports For Learning ...............................................................................31

Professional Development .....................................................................................31

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Teacher Agency .........................................................................................32

Self-Efficacy ..........................................................................................................32

Educational Leadership ..........................................................................................33

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Summary ................................................................................................................34

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................35

Research Method ...................................................................................................35

Research Design.....................................................................................................36

Instruments .............................................................................................................38

Participants .............................................................................................................39

Data Analysis Methods ..........................................................................................40

Data Collection ..........................................................................................41

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 Member Checking ......................................................................................41

Data Analysis Procedure ............................................................................42

Limitations .............................................................................................................43

Delimitations ..........................................................................................................45

Summary ................................................................................................................46

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS .................................................................................................47

Presentation of Findings ........................................................................................47

Demographics ............................................................................................47

Themes .......................................................................................................49

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Student Behaviors in Classroom Impeding Learning ................................50
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Implementation of Supports .......................................................................52

A Need for Additional Adult Support........................................................55

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A Need for Administrator Support ............................................................56

A Need for Professional Development Training .......................................57

Lack of Tools and Resources .....................................................................59

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Insecurity....................................................................................................60

Meaningful Work .......................................................................................61

Summary ................................................................................................................62

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................64

Discussion of Findings and Conclusions ...............................................................64

Research Questions (RQs) .........................................................................65

Application of Findings and Conclusions to the Problem Statement ....................73

Analysis and Key Theories ........................................................................74

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 Application to Leadership ......................................................................................75

Recommendations for Action ................................................................................76

Recommendations for Further Research ................................................................77

Concluding Statement ............................................................................................79

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................81

APPENDIX A Interview Protocol .....................................................................................90

APPENDIX B Recruiting Questionnaire ...........................................................................94

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1. Participants’ Demographic Data .......................................................................47

Table 4.2. Table of Themes ...............................................................................................49

Table 5.1. Research Question 1 Subresearch Questions and Themes ...............................65

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 ABSTRACT

Kindergarten and first-grade students who have been diagnosed with attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may have additional learning needs impeding the

learning of self and others. The purpose of the qualitative study was to investigate: (a) the

successes, challenges, barriers, and needs of teachers working with students who have

ADHD; (b) teachers’ sense of self-efficacy in working with students who have ADHD;

and (c) any differences in successes, challenges, barriers, and needs to mitigate the

problem of how to teach kindergarten and first-grade students who have ADHD. A

qualitative phenomenological research design guided the collection and analysis of data.

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This study’s participants were selected by using purposeful sampling and included
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general education and special education teachers from California and Texas who taught

students in kindergarten or first grade with ADHD. Conducting semistructured interviews

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and inductive data analysis led to a better understanding of teacher self-efficacy and

characteristics to determine differentiated needs and themes. The objective was to learn

about the participants’ lived experiences when teaching kindergarten or first-grade

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students with ADHD and any differentiated needs based on experiences and teacher

characteristics. The responses from participants may assist (a) school leaders when

selecting and creating effective professional development, (b) teacher professional

developers when creating training, and (c) university officials when developing teacher

education courses. Recommendations for future research include expanding the

geographical area and grade range of this study. Another recommendation is to conduct

related research using an in-depth case study to research a teacher who instructs students

who have ADHD and a teacher who instructs students who have autism.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common mental disorder

affecting children (American Psychiatric Association, 2023). Approximately 8–9% of

children (i.e., birth to age 17) are diagnosed with ADHD and are typically diagnosed

once they are school aged (American Psychiatric Association, 2023). ADHD is a

neurodevelopmental disorder with hyperactivity, impulsivity, and/or inattention prevalent

across settings that impedes function and persists for at least 6 months (Boon, 2020;

Braude & Dwarika, 2020; Jaye et al., 2020). There are three subtypes of ADHD:

predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive/impulsive, or a combined type

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(American Psychiatric Association, 2023; Boon, 2020; Jaye et al., 2020). Inattention
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refers to difficulty with keeping focus, hyperactivity is excessive movement for the

setting, and impulsivity entails acting without thinking (American Psychiatric

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Association, 2023). According to Blake and Dwarika (2020), individuals with ADHD

have challenges with personal, social, and academic functions.

Inclusive education means students with disabilities learn in mainstream or

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general education classrooms (Braude & Dwarika, 2020). An inclusive education

provision provides support for students with disabilities, including students with ADHD

(Boon, 2020). According to Colomer et al. (2017), students with ADHD are at a higher

risk of school failure including poor grades, grade retention, and low academic

achievement. Elementary school teachers lack knowledge about ADHD and have

minimal courses related to students with special needs, which impacts their ability to

effectively teach students with ADHD, who often present behavioral, academic, and

relational challenges in classroom settings (Hapsari et al., 2020). Inclusive education

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integrates additional support and implementation of pedagogies that foster learning for

students with ADHD (Boon, 2020). Research has shown educators and training play a

critical role in supporting and teaching students with ADHD; for example, Jaye et al.

(2020) found teachers who had a personal relationship with a person with ADHD and/or

participated in reading articles or training related to ADHD had a better understanding of

the symptoms and features of ADHD. Another qualitative study by Braude and Dwarika

(2020) demonstrated teachers who had extensive training and coursework about ADHD

were more confident in understanding and identifying students with ADHD compared to

teachers who were not formally trained.

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The goal of this study was to describe and analyze the lived experience of general
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education and special education teachers who teach kindergarten and first-grade students

with ADHD to inform the professional development content for primary-grade teachers,
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including strategies for successful support and instructional practices for academic

learning and social–emotional behavioral skills in inclusive learning environments.

Although there exist studies on what strategies have been successful (Boon, 2020;
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Rimestad et al., 2017), few studies have focused on teacher experiences while working

with students with ADHD in the general education and special education classroom

learning environments. Understanding the lived experiences of general education and

special education teachers, including their previous education and professional

development training, knowledge, practice, successes, obstacles, and sense of self-

efficacy, is a precursory step in developing targeted professional development to support

educators of students with ADHD. The information gained from this research adds to the

literature on ADHD and the development of training for educators.

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Study Background/Foundation

Inclusive education provides students with special needs the opportunity to learn

grade-level content, curriculum, and standards in the same general education learning

environment as their typically developing peers. In the U.S. public school system,

students with special needs receive additional support during their school day as

designated by a multidisciplinary team of staff members (Zagona et al., 2017). The

individualized education program (IEP) team meets at least once a year to review each

student’s individualized plan to ensure the educational system is meeting the student’s

unique needs.

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Students with ADHD belong to a subpopulation of students who have special
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needs. ADHD is the most common child neurodevelopmental disorder (Lugo-Candelas et

al., 2017). ADHD affects 3–5% of preschoolers and 8–11% of school-aged children
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(Lugo-Candelas et al., 2017). Students with ADHD can have serious cognitive, social,

emotional, and academic impairments (Tien et al., 2019). Characteristics indicative of a

student with ADHD include inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity (Jaye et al.,
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2020; Silk et al., 2019). Distractibility, not listening, failing to pay close attention to

detail, making careless mistakes, and difficulty sustaining attention are inattentive

symptoms (Silk et al., 2019). Hyperactivity and impulsivity symptoms include fidgeting,

extra movement, excessive running, blurting out, interrupting, and difficulty engaging in

leisure activities (Silk et al., 2019). Behaviors symptomatic of ADHD (e.g., interrupting

instruction, running around the classroom, blurting out, and excessive talking) are

problematic in the classroom setting and impact the learning of the student with ADHD

and the learning of peers.

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Although ADHD is common, students with ADHD present with some additional

challenges and needs compared to typically developing peers in the areas of emotional

understanding, reactivity, and regulation (Lugo-Candelas et al., 2017). Although there

have been studies conducted on understanding and supporting students with ADHD

(Boon, 2020; Braude & Dwarika, 2020; Jaye et al., 2020), students with ADHD continue

to struggle at school, demonstrating difficulties in concentration, hyperactivity, and

impulsivity impacting academic, social, emotional, and behavioral learning during school

and continuing into adulthood (Hotez et al., 2022). A need exists for further research into

successful instructional practices to ensure students with ADHD can learn and access

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grade-level curriculum without impeding their learning or the learning of others.
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Current State of the Field in which the Problem Exists

Approximately 7.2% of children globally and 9.4–14% in the United States are
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diagnosed with ADHD, with one third of children diagnosed before age 6 (Liu, 2020).

Students with ADHD may require behavioral, academic, and emotional support in the

general education setting to ensure they have equitable access to content, curriculum, and
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instruction. Students between the ages of 3 and 21 may receive special education support

and services if qualified for special education through evaluation processes and the

development of an IEP (Liu, 2020). Students who do not qualify for special education

may receive support under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (Liu, 2020). Liu (2020)

discussed additional behavioral, pharmacologic, and nonpharmacologic management

with medical professionals as another layer of a system of support for students with

ADHD.
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Students with ADHD learn in inclusive general education classrooms. In one

study on inclusion in South Africa, Mamabolo et al. (2021) found teachers were willing

to include all students, including students with learning barriers, and were willing to use

diverse instructional strategies; however, they expressed concern for the ability of those

students with learning barriers to develop social skills in an inclusive setting. Teachers

also expressed a lack of understanding of the resources needed to support learners with

disabilities (Mamabolo et al., 2021). It is not surprising, then, that a review of research

specifically addressing inclusive education for students with disabilities found students

who have extensive support needs often learn in separate settings excluded from general

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education. According to McCabe and Ruppar (2023), teachers showed concern about
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access to resources to support their students with disabilities who had extensive needs in

the general education setting. This research supports a better understanding of the lived
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experience of general education and special education teachers in terms of their

knowledge of ADHD and their sense of self-efficacy in working with students with

ADHD to determine what support and training are needed to better equip teachers when
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facilitating learning for students with ADHD.

Historical Background

In the United States, all students have the right to an education. Section 504 of the

Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires that recipients of Section 504 funding (e.g., public

school districts) provide free appropriate public education (FAPE) to each qualified

individual with a disability (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). This requirement

means students with disabilities must obtain appropriate education through the public

education system. The definition of appropriate education is “education in regular

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education, education in regular classes with the use of aids and services, or special

education and related services in separate classrooms for all or portions of the school

day” (U.S. Department of Education, 2010, “How is an Appropriate Education Defined”

section). According to the U.S. Department of Education (2010), education provided

must meet the needs of students with disabilities to the same extent education meets the

needs of typically developing students with comparable facilities, equipment, and

materials.

In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, also known as Public

Law 94-142, ensured children with disabilities would have opportunities to go to school

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with FAPE in the least restrictive environment (LRE; U.S. Department of Education,
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2018). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a law that was

reauthorized in 2004 to ensure students with disabilities who are qualified for special
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education receive special education and related services (U.S. Department of Education,

2018). IDEA governs how states provide early intervention, special education, and

related services to eligible children (i.e., infants through youth) with disabilities (U.S.
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Department of Education, 2018). IDEA also focuses on providing students with

disabilities access to the general education curriculum. Through IDEA legislation,

classroom settings have become more inclusive. Significant progress made from 1975–

2021 included changing from approximately 1.8 million children excluded from public

schools to providing children special education and related services specifically and

individually designed to meet the needs of more than 7.5 million students in the 2020–

2021 school year (U.S. Department of Education, 2018). According to the U.S.

Department of Education (2018), in the 2020–2021 school year, 66% of students with
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disabilities learned in the general education classroom for at least 80% of their school

day.

There are 13 disability categories covered under IDEA: specific learning

disability; other health impairment (OHI); autism spectrum disorder; emotional

disturbance; speech or language impairment; visual impairment, including blindness;

deafness; hearing impairment; deaf-blindness; orthopedic impairment; intellectual

disability; traumatic brain injury; and multiple disabilities (Lee, 2022). Students must

meet the eligibility criteria to be eligible for special education and related services. A

student’s school performance must be considered adversely affected by one or more of

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the disabilities in one of the 13 disability categories (Lee, 2022). Students with ADHD
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could qualify under OHI if ADHD adversely impacts the students’ school performance.

Students with ADHD require additional support and instructional practices to mitigate
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behaviors such as inattention or limited executive functioning, which may impede their

learning (Lee, 2022). Impairments in reading, math, and interpersonal skills may also be

chronic in students with ADHD, making early screening, intervention, and early
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treatment necessary (DuPaul et al., 2016). According to the U.S. Department of

Education (2018), students eligible for special education obtain an IEP ensuring FAPE in

LREs.

Deficiencies in the Evidence

There are numerous studies focused on students with ADHD (DuPaul et al., 2016;

Hutchinson et al., 2016; NoackLeSage et al., 2019; Tien et al., 2019; Wender & Tomb,

2016); however, there remains a lack of studies focused on training and support for

educators who provide instruction for these students in classroom settings. Understanding
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the individual student and their unique characteristics was a theme evident in the

literature. Yamanashi (2017) addressed the need to look at a student’s educational needs,

rather than their disability, to provide the student access to mainstream education through

integrated practices. Yamanashi addressed key issues related to instructional practices,

students’ educational needs, processes, legislation, and human rights.

Another theme that emerged in a review of ADHD research was the need for

academic, social, and emotional support for students who have special needs. Students

with ADHD present with emotional competency impairments with characteristics of

dysregulation or negative emotions (Lugo-Candelas et al., 2017). Understanding

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students’ needs related to academics, social skills, and emotional competency is
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necessary when providing support in developing areas of deficit. Lugo-Candelas et al.’s

(2017) team used a comprehensive approach to examine deficits or challenges around

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emotional competency. For students with ADHD, conditions related to sensory

dysregulation, under- or over-responsivity, and sensory-seeking behaviors may adversely

affect students’ abilities to adapt to daily situations, including school activities (Shimizu
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et al., 2014). According to Colomer et al. (2017), students with ADHD are at a higher

risk of school failure, including poor grades, grade retention, and low academic

achievement.

Much of the literature listed the characteristics of ADHD (Lugo-Candelas et al.,

2017) and the potential areas of need for individuals with ADHD (Van Boxtel, 2017). For

example, Van Boxtel (2017) investigated recommendations for high-quality instructional

practices to teach rigorous Common Core State Standards for teaching all students. The

researchers found general education teachers and special education teachers worked
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collaboratively to align and implement instructional best practices with rigorous

standards (Van Boxtel, 2017). These efforts included the development of the Common

Core State Standards aligned with IEPs for students with ADHD who qualified for

special education support and services. The team determined present levels of function;

assessment findings; development of measurable goals aligned to grade-level standards;

and appropriate supports, accommodations, modifications, and services to construct the

IEP. Van Boxtel’s (2017) research provided a strong start; however, comparison and

generalization warrant further exploration with a larger sample.

Another area of research focusing on student characteristics involved the

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emotional competency deficit of students with ADHD (Lugo-Candelas et al., 2017).
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Specifically, one gap noted was the need to develop methods for students with ADHD to

improve their emotional competency or ability to understand their own emotions and the
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emotions of others (Lugo-Candelas et al., 2017). Lugo-Candelas et al. (2017) posited that

further research is needed to determine instructional practices and methods to support

students with ADHD as they develop emotional competency and the ability to regulate
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emotions.

Outside of student characteristics, only a few studies have focused on teacher

experiences and preparation for teaching students with ADHD. Zagona et al. (2017)

conducted a mixed-methods research design that consisted of interviews and surveys of

special education and general education teachers. This model was used to understand the

general education and special education teachers’ experiences and preparation for

teaching students who have significant disabilities (Zagona et al., 2017). Understanding

the teachers’ knowledge, ideas, strategies, practices, and perspectives provided a baseline
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of information for developing support for students with ADHD (Zagona et al., 2017).

Research has showed education and training play a critical role in supporting and

teaching students with ADHD (Jaye et al., 2020), but even with this conclusion, there

remains a gap in the literature on this topic. Further research is needed to understand

general and special education teacher preparation, opportunities for professional

development, skills, and confidence in teaching students with ADHD.

Key Theories

A key theory that guided the approach of data analysis in this research was the

theory of self-efficacy. Psychological disciplines have focused on how the mind works

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when gaining, storing, and retrieving information (Bandura, 1995). Self-efficacy refers to
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a belief in personal capabilities and influences how people think, feel, and act (Bandura,

1995). This term also influences how people motivate themselves and engage in learning
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activities (Bandura, 1995). Bandura (1995) asserted self-efficacy supports understanding

of successes, challenges, barriers of learning, motivation, and staying power.

Another theory that illuminated the process of data analysis was the hierarchy of
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needs as related to the theory of human motivation. Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs

theory presents human needs in categories from basic survival needs to higher level

needs. The categories are physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization

(Maslow, 1943). First, a person must meet their basic physiological needs (e.g., hunger),

which are essential for survival. Once a person satisfies basic needs, the person may

attend to advanced needs. The next level of needs are safety needs. Safety needs include

living in a safe, healthy, and stable environment. Next, a person’s desire for love,

belonging, and affection emerges. Following love, esteem needs to emerge. Esteem needs
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are twofold and include a need for self-esteem (i.e., the desire for strength and

achievement) and a need for respect (i.e., having prestige and recognition from others;

Maslow, 1943). Satisfaction of esteem leads to the need for self-actualization. Although

the five different categories start with basic needs and progress to higher level needs,

there are times when individuals place a higher emphasis on specific higher level need

categories and less emphasis on other higher level need categories. Meeting basic needs

(e.g., food and shelter) occurs before moving to higher level needs (McLeod, 2018). For

teachers, motivation for esteem and self-actualization served as a guide for this research

study.

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According to Maslow (2014), motivation and growth occur with deficiency
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motivation or growth motivation. In other words, motivation occurs when a person wants,

yearns, wishes for, or lacks. A teacher who yearns for esteem, a higher level of Maslow’s
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hierarchy of needs, may work to advance at work to feel a sense of accomplishment.

Understanding Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was important when examining teachers’

motivations to learn, grow, and become more effective in their teaching practices.
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Problem Statement

Students can receive an ADHD diagnosis as early as 4 years old (Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention, 2020). The general problem explored in this study was

students with ADHD are most often placed in the general education classroom, yet they

have additional learning needs this environment cannot always provide. When students

are off task, acting out, defiant, or impulsive, it impedes their learning and may impede

the learning of others.

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Students with ADHD need a specific instructional plan and support to learn in

general education K–1 classroom setting. The specific problem was that K–1 general

education teachers may not know effective instructional strategies to teach and support

students with ADHD in general education settings. General education teachers need to

use successful instructional strategies to support students with ADHD in the general

education classroom setting. Although training has been shown to improve teachers’

efficacy in teaching students with ADHD (Jaye et al. 2020), such training may not be

provided to all teachers, and the elements of effective training are not clear cut. A first

step to creating this type of training is knowing what teachers experience in the

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classroom. Thus far, little is known about the lived experiences of teachers, including
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their needs, barriers, and successes with this student population.

Audience
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The audience for this study includes numerous stakeholders in the field of

education. The intended audience at the elementary school level includes teachers,

students and their families, and site and district leadership. Teachers participating in the
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study shared their experiences. Other teachers can read the experiences of colleagues and

make connections to successes, challenges, barriers, and efficacy. Teachers are also the

educational leaders in the classroom who make instructional decisions. Students and their

families are stakeholders in this research because they are members of the elementary site

who experience the learning environments. Site leadership teams and district leadership

teams might also be able to gain an understanding of the potential needs of teachers at

their sites and in their districts based on the experiences of teachers included in this study.
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Specific Leadership Problem

The specific leadership problem was a lack of understanding of the experiences of

general education and special education teachers who work with kindergarten and first-

grade students with ADHD. The data gathered on the lived experiences of teachers

provided knowledge, successes, barriers, and a sense of efficacy felt by the educators.

This research provided information needed for the future development of teacher training,

professional development, resources, and supports to ensure students with ADHD have

access to high-quality instruction that meets their learning needs. Leaders in the field of

education (e.g., teachers, site administrators, district administrators) can use the

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information gained throughout this research to (a) better understand teacher experiences
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with students with ADHD and their specific needs, (b) create appropriate learning

environments and opportunities for students with ADHD, and (c) provide opportunities
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for professional development training for teachers.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this research was to explore teachers’ experiences and sense of
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self-efficacy in working with students with ADHD to mitigate the problem of how to

teach kindergarten and first-grade students with ADHD in elementary classrooms. This

research addressed an area of special education that researchers have yet to explore and

research fully. The findings of this study add to the body of knowledge and help with the

development of special education and general education instructional practices used to

support students with ADHD in kindergarten and first grade. Findings from this study

add to the knowledge base for general educators, special educators, administrators, and

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