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Java Software and Embedded Systems 1st Edition Mattis
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JAVA SOFTWARE AND EMBEDDED

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MATTIS HAYES
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ISAIAH JOHANSEN
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Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 CONTENTS

Preface vii
Chapter 1 Java in Ambient Intelligence Applications 1
J.A. Tejedor, Jose J. Durán, Miguel A. Patricio, J. García,
A. Berlanga and José M. Molina
Chapter 2 The Power of Reflection: Combining Semantics in Service 45
Oriented Architectures for Dynamic Intelligent Invocation
P. Cabezas, S. Arrizabalaga, A. Salterain and J. Legarda
Chapter 3 Architecture of Embedded Tunable Circular Microstrip Antenna 69
Tapas Chakravarty, Salil K. Sanyal and Asok De
Chapter 4 A New Development Environment for Embedded Control 89
Systems Design and Interactive Optimization Methodologies
for Robust Calibration of Automotive Engines
Alessandro Casavola, Ferdinando De Cristofaro
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

and Iolanda Montalto

Chapter 5 Java Software for HCI in Ubiquitous Space 117
Takuya Yamauchi
Chapter 6 A Java Approach to Robotics and Artificial Intelligence 123
Christopher M. Gifford, Jerome E. Mitchell and Arvin Agah
Chapter 7 Security for Java Platforms 143
Pierre Parrend
Chapter 8 Reducing Code Replication in Delegation-based Java Programs 171
Martin Kuhlemann, Christian Kästner and Sven Apel
Chapter 9 Script Computing for Embedded Systems 185
Stephen S. Nestinger and Harry H. Cheng
Chapter 10 A Free Software Platform for Embedded Real-Time Robotics 211
and Industrial Automation
Gabriele Bruzzone, Marco Bibuli and Massimo Caccia
Index 227

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 PREFACE

Wireless communications technologies are the platform to develop user-centric systems

in a multi-device platform that allows mobility and user-friendly interaction. The
development of a multi-device platform requires a common language such as Java. This book
discusses two different works related with Bluetooth and GPS-GSM communication, to
illustrate the capacity of Java language to develop applications that need wireless
communications. Java application on the distributed system is introduced by certain
keywords, design pattern, software architecture, design process and architecture for
ubiquitous space. Furthermore, Java is often used as an embedded programming system,
which is a combination of hardware, software, mechanical and other technical components
designed to perform a dedicated function, unlike a general purposes computer. This book
describes a new development framework for embedded control systems and engine
calibration is presented, which supports the modelling of such systems and provides tools for
the design and validation activities. An analytical method to express the resonant frequency in
terms of the lumped component values is outlined as well.
Wireless communications technologies are the platform to develop user-centric systems
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

in a multi-device platform that allows mobility and user-friendly interaction. The

development of a multi-device platform requires a common language as Java. In Chapter 1,
two different works related with Bluetooth and GPS-GSM communication has been selected
to illustrate the capacity of Java language to develop applications that need wireless
communications.
Service Oriented Architectures offer an incomparable setting for the management and
reuse of services. In the case of such big scaled architectures the ability to choose between
those services often gets blurry, because of the difficulty when trying to find the one which
fits better the actual needs, or even because its invocation process gets excessively complex.
Therefore, the correct identification of the services becomes really important in the
environment optimization process. With regard to this, the semantic technologies cover the
problem of hierarchies creation and services identification, due to the use of common
languages and concepts, understandable and writeable by human beings.
Chapter 2 shows a solution developed with the Java programming language over the
OSGi framework, allowing the storage, identification and intelligent invocation of software
services.
Built upon the base provided by the OSGi framework as an entity for resource junction,
the information in its internal in-memory service registry has been enhanced with the

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 viii Mattis Hayes and Isaiah Johansen

development of an additional semantic layer based on OWL. This allows new technical
approaches, adding capabilities with the development of software agents that make use of this
new information.
These capabilities cover the search of services according to certain terms in shared
common ontologies, providing concepts and values by the client that are used in the searching
and invocation process, the download of services including possible dependencies, remote
invocation, and so on. Thanks to the conjugation of this semantic layer with software libraries
such as the Java Reflection API, the client does not need to know any detail behind the public
façade in the framework. Instead, intelligent software agents manage the existing and
arranged catalogue of services in an absolutely transparent way.
In Chapter 3, the authors outline a method to tune a conventional (regular shaped)
microstrip antenna. An analytical method to express the resonant frequency in terms of the
lumped component values is elaborated.
The development of embedded control systems for automotive applications is an
emerging field in the technical literature. There is, consequently, a lack of methodologies and
tools that support the various development phases, starting from the early architectural design
and ending with the calibration and validation processes. In Chapter 4, a new development
framework for embedded control systems and engine calibration (F.I.R.E.—Functional
Implementation Re-usability Environment) is presented, which supports the modelling of
such systems at a high abstraction level and provides tools for the design and validation
activities. The F.I.R.E. tool enables control engineers and software developers to focus on
control system aspects instead of platform ones. This is achieved by means of an automation
procedure of some necessary transformations during the development process. Two
application examples are reported to prove the tool capabilities to allow a timing analysis and
to detect a bad task scheduling before the production code is generated.
The tool also provides a set of support functions to the embedded system design process,
calibration and validation phases which are always crucial aspects in the overall development
cycle. This consideration is particularly true for engine control systems, because their
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

complexity is continuously increasing and more stringent time-to-market deadlines are

conversely required.
The use of optimization tools, able to speed up the single calibration and verification
phases, has been proven effective and it is now a current industrial practice. Such experiences
have also suggested that their integration within the F.I.R.E environment needs to be strongly
encouraged. The rationale is that the development process of Engine Management Systems
consists of several phases, each one related to a single physical engine development phase.
During these phases, in which there is an incremental SW development, it is necessary to
estimate from the physical engine a large set of calibration parameters in a very short time
and with great accuracy.
The purpose of Chapter 5 is to consider software architecture on distributed system by
object-oriented language for Human Computer Interaction in ubiquitous space. The
distributed system consists of middleware and web application. The middleware that connects
devices has sensor information server and control functionality ,the web application that gets
sensor information from the middleware presents information in browser in order to
represent status of the ubiquitous space. Design process for object oriented language that
includes analysis such as UML and OML is required to implement the distributed system.
This chapter introduces java application on the distributed system by the following keywords,

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 Preface ix

design pattern, software architecture, design process and architecture for ubiquitous space. In
the first section, this chapter explains simple design patterns that are used in the software
architecture. The design patterns are known as efficient methods for implementation to be
composed of the software architecture. Secondly, the authors describe the software
architecture such as Model View Control (MVC) and Dependency Injection (DI). The
architectures as framework that are pattern-oriented architecture are used in web application
and the software application. In the design process section, the authors discuss methods for
software construction to implement required system, and the design process is considered in
order to build distributed system for ubiquitous space.
Java is heavily used in a variety of research applications, due to its ease of use,
maintainability, and portability. In Chapter 6, the use of Java in robotics and artificial
intelligence is discussed, accompanied by examples of Java-based research in these areas. The
authors have developed software architectures for research in robotics and artificial
intelligence using Java, specifically for two autonomous polar robots, which were deployed in
Greenland and Antarctica to support radar remote sensing missions. Such environments
require both reliable and robust software to minimize possible failures during autonomous
operation. Also, a team of low-cost exploration and mapping mobile robots has been built,
utilizing Java Sun SPOTs as the means of wireless robot communication and coordination,
and a custom inertial measurement unit (IMU) for keeping track of robot pose. As part of this
development, Java was additionally used to implement a portion of the Joint Architecture for
Unmanned Systems (JAUS) communication protocol. Currently, research involving
collaborative multi-agent machine learning is being performed with the Java-based WEKA
machine learning suite and additional Java wrapper software. These applications illustrate that
Java has a wide range of research applications in the fields of robotics and artificial
intelligence.
The Java environment is composed of two main parts: the Java language and the Java
virtual machine. It is designed with the assumption that no software entity is to be trusted and,
therefore, that each needs to be checked. The first success of Java was the inception of Java
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Applets, which enabled fully untrusted code provided by unknown Web sites to be executed
in a browser. This feature demonstrated the isolation brought by the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM) between the applications and the underlying operating system. However, the evolution
of Java systems from mono-application to multi-component systems induce new
vulnerabilities developers are not aware of. This requires that additional security mechanisms
be used to support secure Java environments.
This survey presents an overview of the security issues for the Java language and Virtual
Machine. The default security model is defined and explained. Its three main components are
the Java language itself, the Bytecode validation at load time and modularity supports such as
the class loaders and permission domains. Known vulnerabilities are presented. They
originate either in the JVM or in the code of applications. Two approaches exist for
describing code vulnerabilities: source code and Bytecode. This duality enables us to identify
them both during development through manual code review and tools, and in an automated
manner during code deployment or installation. Security extensions for the Java Execution
Environment and tools for writing secure Java code are presented. They are of three types:
platform extensions, static analysis approaches and behavior injection. Platform extensions
consist in strengthening the isolation between components (beans, etc.) and providing support
for resource consumption accounting and control. Static analysis is often performed through

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 x Mattis Hayes and Isaiah Johansen

generic tools that improve the code quality and thus reduce the number of exploitable bugs in
the Java code. Some of these tools, such as FindBugs, encompass security-specific bugs, and
some, as JSLint are dedicated to security analysis. Bytecode injection enables us to introduce
security checks in the core of the code. It can be performed with the developers involved, for
instance through aspect-oriented programming, or transparently, through Bytecode injection
or meta-programming.
An overview of the existing protection mechanisms for Java systems according to the
life-cycle moment they are enforced and to the development overhead they imply concludes
Chapter 7.
As explained in Chapter 8, interfaces and delegation are fundamental concepts in OO
languages. Although both concepts have been shown to be beneficial in software
development, sometimes their implementation is cumbersome. Both result in numbers of
forwarding methods or numbers of empty methods for respective classes. These trivial
methods distract the user from non-trivial methods the class comprises. This increases
complexity and decreases maintainability. In its current form, Java does not provide sufficient
mechanisms to avoid this boilerplate code. Instead, all the methods that are empty or only
forward calls have to be coded manually. In this paper, the authors introduce a new
lightweight mechanism, that improves the implementation of interface-based and delegation-
based programs. The authors show, though this mechanism is very simple, it solves these
problems that are well-known in object-oriented software development. In three open-source
Java programs of up to over 25,000 lines of source code, the authors show how they use this
mechanism to generate up to 5.7% of all methods per case study that were empty or only
forwarding calls.
The advent of high speed ubiquitous embedded systems and embedded operating systems
with features normally expected in conventional operating systems provide developers with
new found system flexibility and versatility. These features are keen to the advancement of
mechatronic and embedded systems such as robotic systems, sensor networks, distributed
embedded computing, structural health monitoring, first respond systems, supervisory control
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

and data acquisition (SCADA), and traffic management, especially in geographically

distributed and unstructured domains. To address the challenges of uncertainty and rapid
prototyping, a flexible embedded system programming platform is critical to enhance
prototyping capabilities and maintainability, and provide dynamic reconfiguration and in-situ
processing. Chapter 9 discusses the programmability and reconfigurability of modern full
featured embedded systems along with current trends in interfacing methods. This chapter
also introduces tools that allow embedded systems developers to easily program for their
specific embedded system hierarchy and deal with multiple levels of complexity using the C
language while exposing the feature rich functionality of embedded operating systems.
Embedded real-time platforms are a basic component of both robots and machines for the
automation of industrial processes. Although industrial applications traditionally rely on PLC-
based hardware and, in any case, proprietary software, i.e. operating systems and
development tools, in recent years dramatic improvements in hardware computer power and
free software quality made realistic the employment of architectures based on PC-compatible
hardware and GNU/Linux software, more common in the research community. The
advantages of a free infrastructure, that can become the terrain of fruitful cooperation between
research institutions and companies, can be exploited mainly in fields, in which the added
value is in the application, i.e. in mechanical and algorithmic solutions, and where the point

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 Preface xi

of view is that of aware users of an infrastructure, rather than of R&D competitors. This is the
case of the project presented in the following, representing a success story in which the
discussion between a research group and a small enterprise led to the identification of the
requirements and the joined development of a common software infrastructure. When the
project started in 2004, both partners, i.e. the Autonomous robotic systems and control group
of CNR-ISSIA and Green Project Srl, had to substitute the obsolete platforms of their marine
robots and marking machines for casting products in steelworks with a stable software and
hardware infrastructure able of transparently integrating technological improvements while
remaining compatible with the past (backward compatibility). On the basis of considerations,
discussed below, about system reliability, development and maintenance costs (including
human resources), foreseen compatibility and general technical soundness, the choice was to
verify the possibility of using standard GNU/Linux for embedded real-time applications. The
result is the main technical contribution of this chapter, i.e. the practical demonstration of the
possibility of using standard GNU/Linux for implementing embedded real-time control
systems working up to a sampling frequency of at most 2 Khz. Furthermore, four years later,
the developed system is still demonstrating its capabilities transparently integrating
technological improvements and increasing more and more its performance thanks to the new
realtime properties of the Linux kernel.
A first operative release of the platform was completed in 2005 and integrated with the
CNR-ISSIA Charlie unmanned surface vehicle (USV) for robotics research. A second
application was the porting to the platform of the software of the control system of Hammer,
a steelwork industrial machine used for marking continuous casting products, developed by
Greenproject s.r.l.
At the moment, the platform is supporting the development of the ALANIS (Aluminium
Autonomous Navigator for Intelligent Sampling) USV1 for surface and underwater coastal
monitoring. Moreover, the integration with generic field buses and image acquisition systems
is being carried out.
After an introduction reporting a summary of related research in the field and a
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

discussion of the platform requirements, the key points of the followed methodology for
making GNU/Linux real-time will be presented. Finally, two applications, a research one and
an industrial one, pointing out the basic real-time structures that the platform is required to
implement, will be described in Chapter 10.

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 In: Java Software and Embedded Systems ISBN: 978-1-60741-661-6
Editors: M. Hayes and I. Johansen, pp. 1-43 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

JAVA IN AMBIENT INTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS

J.A. Tejedor, Jose J. Durán, Miguel A. Patricio, J. García,

A. Berlanga and José M. Molina1
Applied Artificial Intelligence Group
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid

Abstract
Wireless communications technologies are the platform to develop user-centric systems in a
multi-device platform that allows mobility and user-friendly interaction. The development of a
multi-device platform requires a common language as Java. In this chapter, two different
works related with Bluetooth and GPS-GSM communication has been selected to illustrate the
capacity of Java language to develop applications that need wireless communications.
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Introduction
Computational resources are every time closer to all the people because of the
development of devices such as Personal Digital Assistants and mobile phones which have
gained a lot of popularity in these days and are increasingly being networked (e.g., Bluetooth,
IEEE 802.11). The use of this technology gave birth to a new concept: mobile computing.
Mobile computing field is having an increasing attention as many systems are designed
towards this direction. Most of them are desired to be context aware with the aim of
optimizing and automating the distribution of their services in the right time and in the right
place. Context aware computing is a paradigm was firstly defined by (Shilit, 1995). This
paradigm studies methods for modelling and utilizing contextual information. A more widely
and used definition of what context is, was given by (Dey et al., 2001) where he defines
context as: “any information that characterizes a situation related to the interaction between
humans, applications, and the surrounding environment.” There are also some other
categories described by Chen and Kotz (Chen and Kotz, 2000) which classify context in a
more fine- grained categories.
1
E-mail address: [email protected].

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 2 J.A. Tejedor, Jose J. Durán, Miguel A. Patricio et al.

Accordingly, there are several approaches developing mobile systems such as platforms,
frameworks and applications for offering context-aware services. The Context Toolkit
proposed by (Dey et al., 2001) assist for instance developers by providing them with
abstractions enabling them to build context-aware applications. The Context Fusion Networks
(Chen et al., 2004) was introduced by Chen and Kotz in 2004. It allows context-aware
applications to select distributed data sources and compose them with customized data fusion
operators into an information fusion graph. The graph represents how an application
computes high level understandings of its execution context from low-level sensory data. The
Context Fabric (Hong, 2002) is another toolkit which facilitates the development of privacy-
sensitive, ubiquitous computing applications. There is another platform Gaia (Schmidt et al.,
1999), which was developed by Roman et al. in 2002 and was designed to support also the
development and execution of applications for ubiquitous computing spaces in which users
interact with several devices and services at the same time. RCSM is another middleware
proposed by (Yau and Karim, 2004) designed to provide the properties of context-awareness
and ad-hoc communications to the applications. It provides an object-based framework for
supporting context-sensitive applications similar to CORBA (OMG, 2000) or TAO (Gokhale
and Schmidt, 1999) for fixed networks. There are previous approaches like Entree (Burke et
al., 1996) which uses a knowledge base and case-based reasoning to recommend restaurant or
for instance Cyberguide (Abowd et al., 1997) project which provides user with context-aware
information about the projects performed at GVU center in Atlanta. With TV remote
controllers throughout the building to detect users locations and provide them with a map that
highlights the project demos available in the neighboring area of the user. A recent one is
Appear which is a context-aware platform designed to provide contextual information to users
in particular and well defined domains (Sanchez-Pi et al., 2007).
The final goal of the ambient intelligence (AmI) is to construct intelligent environments
that facilitate a ubiquitous access with independence of the physical location. This ubiquity
need has produced the growing use of wireless devices (especially handheld devices) in
recent years. Wireless networks are location independent; provide a wide range of coverage
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

and extend traditional wired communication techniques. Protocols used to communicate in

wireless technologies are mainly classified in the 802.1x.x protocol family for Bluetooth,
infrared and Wi-Fi, and protocols used in mobile phones within the GPRS or UMTS
technologies. Other wireless technologies that must be taken into account are GSM, GPS,
RFID or ZigBee. Wireless LANs, also known as Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) networks can be
used to replace or as an extension of wired LANs.
Many developments have been carried out over these technologies to develop user-
centric systems. Many of this development need to process information in a multi-device
platform that allows mobility and user-friendly interaction. Many examples of this new
development appear in domotic house, ambient assist living, new surveillance paradigm, etc.
The development of a multi-device platform requires a common language to facilitate the
development of complex device-dependent application.
From this set of technologies and device-dependant applications, we select two different
works related with Bluetooth and GPS-GSM communication to facilitate user interaction and
allow developing location based system, respectively.
Bluetooth is a wireless technology utilises a short-range radio link and operates in the 2.4
- 2.48 GHz frequency band. Bluetooth is a technology that facilitates the interaction between
near devices providing a high reliability and low-consumption. Using this technology, we

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 Java in Ambient Intelligence Applications 3

have develop in Java a generic Bluetooth Java component to integrate mechanical user
interface (an example with Wiimote2 will be explained) to manage an ambient assist living
scenario.
GPRS uses a packet-switched system which provides data transfer services on mobile
phone networks. UMTS is a universal mobile telecommunications system that operates in the
2 GHz frequency band and emphasizes the compatibility. Location with this technology gives
a great uncertainty (usual several Km), but the integration of GPS receivers could be useful to
increase the accuracy up to meters. We have developed a Java component based on the
Location API for Java ME (Java Platform, Micro Edition) JSR-179 and applied to deploy it in
Nokia Mobile Phones to access the GPS and to obtain the location position.

Bluetooth Protocol and JSR-82 Package

In this section, we explore some topics about the Bluetooth protocol and the JSR-82
package for Java implementation. First of all, we start with the Bluetooth Stack protocols and
then we describe the most important classes and interfaces of the JSR-82 package. Finally, we
show some sample codes of using this package.

Bluetooth Stack Protocols

The Bluetooth stack has a defined number of protocols that helps developers to establish
communication between different devices and to be able to offer a good range of services.
Among others, these are most important protocols:

• L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol): is intended to offer a

communication infrastructure based on a pair of sockets between devices, granting
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

the ability to send raw data throw the connection. Based on this one protocol are
defined the other ones Bluetooth protocols.
• SDP (Service Discovery Protocol): this protocol is in charge of offering services of a
device at petition, telling which services are available and its properties. This
protocol is really important, because it is intended to support the main capability of
Bluetooth, the offering of services.
• OBEX (OBject EXchange): this other protocol is used between devices to help
sending formatted messages between them, helping to offer a robust framework,
where the communication limitations can be negotiated between devices, and
messages can be refused before been received, but knowing about their attributes.
This protocol is widely used in mobile devices, mainly to be able to exchange image
and audio files between them, independently of the platform of the device, for
example in a printer and a photo camera.

This list of protocols can be expanded, so new protocols can use these ones to help define
the functionality, so a protocol that helps to create a chat application will use OBEX features

2
The primary controller for Nintendo's Wii console.

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 4 J.A. Tejedor, Jose J. Durán, Miguel A. Patricio et al.

to send messages, or a video streamer will use L2CAP to send data flow between devices,
using its capabilities to send raw data asynchronously. A standard service created in top of
OBEX is OBEX object push, which helps to send files, between devices, using OBEX
capabilities to send messages, and saving later that file into the mobile device file system.

Inside JSR-82 Package

The acronym JSR-82 comes from Java Specification Request, which is a proposed
specification for Java that defines a series of classes and functions to be able to create
wirelessly connections over Bluetooth to a mobile device.
The first application of that technology is inside mobile phones, because that
specification is only implemented by the mobile phone sector, became it’s usage in personal
computer really complex, because it is necessary to use libraries from third-party companies
to get access to Bluetooth from Java, that is because it is need to use some operative system
exclusive functionalities, needing to use JNI when developing for a personal computer.
To be able to use JSR-82, it is needed to select which kind of device the application will
be oriented for, because them it will be necessary to select what is the most appropriate
implementation of the specification:

− Mobile phone To be able to use this library in a mobile phone, it should be inside the
mobile using the implementation of JSR-82 in the J2ME virtual machine, but it
depends of the device as the manufacturer, because someone creates their own
implementations of the library, or creates their own one Bluetooth library to support
Bluetooth access, been incompatible with JSR-82.
− Personal computer The use of that specification in a computer is really powerful,
but, it has some inconvenient been the first one the requirement to use external
libraries which normally do not offer full support of JSR-82, but permits to use the
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

capabilities of a personal computer that offer more computational capability that a

mobile device. The most appropriated library, because been open-source and totally
free is Bluecove3 (Bluecove webpage).

In this chapter we will take a view of using Bluetooth in a personal computer using
Bluecove. Bluecove is an implementation of the JSR-82 bluetooth stack for Java, in different
operative systems, like Windows, Linux or MacOS, helping developers to use the JSR-82 in
any computer that have almost one of those operative systems and a Bluetooth device.
To be able to work with Bluetooth it is necessary to access to a group of functionalities,
been the more basic ones and the most important searching devices and querying them about
services, been able to use them later (JSR-82 webpage) to offer and using services between
mobile devices.
This package is divided among a collection of interfaces and classes, but we will take a
review of the most important ones that are used in this chapter:

3
http://bluecove.org/.

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 Java in Ambient Intelligence Applications 5

Interfaces Classes Exception

DiscoveryListener RemoteDevice BluetoothConnectionException
L2CAPConnection DeviceClass BluetoothStateException
ServiceRecord UUID
ClientSession LocalDevice
HeaderSet DiscoveryAgent
Operation DataElement

Figure 1. Elements of package JSR-82.

These elements functionalities are described as follows:

Interfaces:

• DiscoveryListener : Provides of the primitive methods to notify to an object about

device and service queries. A more accurate view of this interface can be seen in the
examples about devices and services search.
o void deviceDiscovered(RemoteDevice btDevice, DeviceClass cod): This method is
called whenever a new device is discovered by a discovery agent, telling about what
is the remote device and his type.
o void inquiryCompleted(int discType): When a device query is completed, the listener
is notified by this, telling about what kind of search it was.
o void servicesDiscovered(int transID, ServiceRecord[] servRecord): When services
are found in a service query, the listener is notified with the full list, and the
transaction ID.
o void serviceSearchCompleted(int transID, int respCode): Whenever a service query
is finished, it is notified to the listener, telling about the transaction ID and the result
code, telling about problems if they are.
• L2CAPConnection : Represents a connection using L2CAP protocol.
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

L2CAPConection interface offers the primitives needed to interact with this protocol.
This kind of connection will work totally like a socket, been able to send an
undetermined amount of information in a one-way connection. This connection is
used in the Wiimote example that is explained further.
o boolean ready(): Tells if the connection is ready to send data.
o int receive(byte[] inBuf): Put in the buffer the received data, and tells about how
many data is received.
o void send(byte[] data): Send all the data in the vector.
• ServiceRecord : Offers access to service information, and defines some constants for
standard id’s about attributes. This class is intended to help devices to negotiate each
other about services and its restrictions, like authentication.
o int[] getAttributeIDs(): Received attributes.
o DataElement getAttributeValue(int attrID) : returns information about a desired
attribute.
o String getConnectionURL(int requiredSecurity,boolean mustBeMaster): creates a
connection string to the desired service, with the auntethication options implicit.
o RemoteDevice getHostDevice(): Get the RemoteDevice object associated with the
service.

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
 6 J.A. Tejedor, Jose J. Durán, Miguel A. Patricio et al.

o boolean populateRecord(int[] attrIDs): fills the attribute list with the ones from the
list, if able, so the value of the attribute can be set.
o boolean setAttributeValue(int attrID, DataElement attrValue): changes an attribute
value.
o void setDeviceServiceClasses(int classes): set the device service classes, so the
device will be able to be recognized as one of a list of generic devices.
• ClientSession: Permits to use OBEX (OBject EXchange) primitives in a session
between mobile devices. As mentioned above, OBEX is a communications protocol
that facilitates the exchange of binary objects between devices. This connection is
similar as the one between a web client and a server, were the server sends a file to
the client telling about how is the file, and the file itself. The example of service
search uses this protocol as example of communication between devices, in this case
to be able to retrieve an image file.
o HeaderSet connect(HeaderSet headers): Creates a connection between devices throw
an OBEX service, with the desired information.
o HeaderSet createHeaderSet(): Creates a predefined HeaderSet with the information
needed for the service, and the attributes that are needed.
o HeaderSet disconnect(HeaderSet headers): Disconnects from the other device,
releasing the service.
o Operation get(HeaderSet headers): Creates a reception operation, to retrieve data
from the other device. The parameter is fill with connection properties.
o Operation put(HeaderSet headers): Creates a sending operation, been able to send
the announced data.
• HeaderSet : Contains the meta-information of the communication using OBEX,
defining the object attributes and authentication.
o void createAuthenticationChallenge(String realm, boolean userID, boolean access):
Creates a security mechanism, based in the realm pass prhase.
o Object getHeader(int headerID): return an attribute header. Normally it is an String,
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

but it is recommended to use the toString() returned String.

o int[] getHeaderList(): List of header from the HeaderSet.
o void setHeader(int headerID, Object headerValue): set a header to a desired value.
The value is defined by the toString() method of the object.
• Operation : Offers functionality to interact using data streams to exchange
information using OBEX, so an HeaderSet can be sent throw a connection,
negotiating transference attributes.
o void abort(): aborts the operation between the devices.
o HeaderSet getReceivedHeaders(): Returns the headers assigned to this operation.
o int getResponseCode(): Return a response code to be able to track errors.
o void sendHeaders(HeaderSet headers): sends headers to the other device.

Classes:

• RemoteDevice : Offers access to device information, and defines some methods to

obtain not broadcasted information of the device as the friendly name.
o String getBluetoothAddress(): Returns an unique identifier of the device, that
identifies it of the rest of Bluetooth device available.

Java Software and Embedded Systems, edited by Mattis Hayes, and Isaiah Johansen, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest
Other documents randomly have
different content
 “But does not the world need revolutionizing,” he said,
“according to your own principles?”
“We do what we can, at least we endeavor to do so, as far as we
are able.”
“Are you sure even of that?” he replied. “Are you sure it is not
mammon that you really worship, and not Christ? But I will say no
more. You are but mortal men as we were; and man is fallible and
weak, and our knowledge is but half-knowledge at best, and our
love and faith have but feeble wings to lift us above the earth on
which we dwell. Look upon us, therefore, as you would be looked
upon yourselves, and be not too stern on our shortcomings. We had
our vices and faults and deficiencies as you have yours, but we had
also our virtues, and were on the whole as high of purpose, as self-
sacrificing, as pure even as you; but man neither then nor now has
led an ideal life.
“But to return to what we were saying about our treatment of
Christians. Let me add in my own justification that I for myself never
had any hand in persecutions, either of Christians or of others, nor
was I ever aware that they were persecuted. I knew that persons
who happened to be Christians were punished for political offenses;
and that was all, I think, that happened. Believe me, my soul was
averse from all such things, nor would I ever allow even my enemies
to be persecuted, much less those who merely differed from me on
moral and philosophical theses. Nay, I may say they differed little
from me even on these points, as you may well see if you read my
letters on the subject of the proper treatment of one’s enemies,
written to Lucius Verus, or if you will refer to that little diary of mine
in Pannonia, wherein I was not so base as to lie to myself.”
“Indeed,” I cried; “that book is a precious record of the purest
and highest morality.”
“’Tis a poor thing,” he answered, “but sincere. I strove to act up
to my best principles; but life is difficult, and man is not wise, and
our opinions are often incorrect. Still, I strove to act according to my
nature; to do the things which were fit for me, and not to be
diverted from them by fear of any blame; to keep the divine part in
me tranquil and content; and to look upon death and life, honor and
dishonor, pain and pleasure, as neither good nor evil in themselves,
but only in the way in which we receive them. For fame I sought
not; for what is fame but a smoke that vanishes, a river that runs
dry, a lamp that soon is extinguished—a tale of a day, and scarcely
even so much? Therefore, it benefits us not deeply to consider it,
but to pass on through the little space assigned to us conformably to
nature, and in content, and to leave it at last grateful for what we
have received, just as an olive falls off when it is ripe, blessing
nature which produced it, and thanking the tree on which it grew.
So, also, it is our duty not to defile the divinity in our breast, but to
follow it tranquilly and obediently as a god, saying nothing contrary
to truth, and doing nothing contrary to justice. For our opinions are
but running streams, flowing in various ways; but truth and justice
are ever the same, and permanent, and our opinions break about
them as the waves round a rock, while they stand firm forever. For
every accident of life there is a corresponding virtue to exercise; and
if we consult the divine within us, we know what it is. As we cannot
avoid the inevitable, we should accept it without murmuring; for we
cannot struggle against the gods without injuring ourselves. For the
good we do to others, we have our immediate reward; for the evil
that others do to us, if we cease to think of it, there is no evil to us.
It is by accepting an offense, and entertaining it in our thoughts,
that we increase it, and render ourselves unhappy, and veil our
reason, and disturb our senses. As for our life, it should be given to
proper objects, or it will not be decent in itself; for a man is the
same in quality as the object that engages his thoughts. Our whole
nature takes the color of our thoughts and actions. We should also
be careful to keep ourselves from rash and premature judgments
about men and things; for often a seeming wrong done to us is a
wrong only through our misapprehension, and arising from our fault.
And so, making life as honest as possible and calmly doing our duty
in the present, as the hour and the act require, and not too curiously
considering the future beyond us, standing ever erect, and believing
that the gods are just, we may make our passage through this life
no dishonor to the Power that placed us here. Throughout the early
portion of my life, my father, Antoninus Pius,—I call him my father,
for he was ever dear to me, and was like a father,—taught me to be
laborious and assiduous, to be serene and just, to be sober and
kind, to be brave and without envy or vanity; and on his death-bed,
when he felt the shadow coming over him, he ordered the captain of
the guard to transfer to me the golden statuette of Fortune, and
gave him his last watchword of ‘Equanimity.’ From that day to the
day when, in my turn, I left the cares of empire and of life, I ever
kept that watchword in my heart—equanimity; nor do I know a
better one for any man.”
“Oh, tell me, for you know,” I cried, “what is there behind this
dark veil which we call death? You have told me of your opinions
and thoughts and principles of life, here; but of that life hereafter
you have not said a word. What is it?”
There was a blank silence. I looked up—the chair was empty!
That noble figure was no longer there.
“Fool that I was!” I cried; “why did I discuss with him these
narrow questions belonging to life and history, and leave that
stupendous question unasked which torments us all, and of which he
could have given the solution?”
I rose from my chair, and after walking up and down the room
several minutes, with the influence of him who had left me still filling
my being as a refined and delicate odor, I went to the window,
pushed wide the curtains, and looked out upon the night. The clouds
were broken, and through a rift of deep, intense blue, the moon was
looking out on the earth. Far away, the heavy and ragged storm was
hovering over the mountains, sullen and black, and I recalled the
words of St. Paul to the Romans:—
“When the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by nature the
things contained in the law, these, having not the law, are a law
unto themselves;” and “the doers of the law shall be justified.”
 DISTORTIONS OF THE ENGLISH
STAGE AS INSTANCED IN
“MACBETH.”
Art is art because it is not nature, is the motto of the Idealisti;
Art is but the imitation of nature, say the Naturalisti. The truth lies
between the two. Art is neither nature alone, nor can it do without
nature. No imitation, however accurate, for imitation’s sake makes a
good work of art in any other than a mechanical sense. And every
work of art in which the objects represented are inaccurately or
imperfectly imitated is in so far deficient. But art works by
suggestion as well as by imitation. Whatever is untrue to the
imagination fails to produce its proper effect, however true it be to
the fact. The most absolute realism will not answer the higher
demand of the imagination for ideal truth. Art is not simply the
reproduction of nature, but nature as modified and colored by the
spirit of the artist. It is a crystallization out of nature of all elements
and facts related by affinity to the idea intended to be embodied.
These solely it should eliminate and draw to itself, leaving the rest as
unessential. A literal adherence to all the accidents of nature is not
only not necessary in art, but may even be fatal. The enumeration of
all the leaves in a tree does not reproduce a tree to the imagination,
while a whole landscape may be compressed into a single verse.
Between the ideal and the natural school there is a perpetual
struggle. Under the purely ideal treatment art becomes vague and
insipid; under the purely natural treatment it becomes literal and
prosaic. The Pre-Raphaelites, in protesting against weak
sentimentalism and vague generalization, and demanding an honest
study of nature, have fallen into the error of exaggerating the
importance of minute detail, and, by insisting too strongly on literal
truth, have sometimes lost sight of that ideal truth which is of higher
worth. But their work was needed, and it has been bravely done.
They have roused the age out of that dull conventionalism in which
it had fallen asleep. They have stimulated thought, revivified
sentiment, and reasserted with word and deed the necessity of
nature as a true basis of art.
As in the arts of painting and sculpture, so in the drama and on
the stage a strong reaction is taking place against the stilted
conventionalism and elaborate artifice of the last generation. Such
plays as the “Nina Sforza” of Mr. Troughton, the “Legend of
Florence” of Mr. Leigh Hunt, and the “Blot in the ‘Scutcheon” and
“Colombe’s Birthday” of Mr. Browning, are vigorous protests against
the feeble pretensions and artificial tragedies of the previous
century. The poems and plays of Mr. Browning breathe a new life;
and if as yet they have only found “fit audience though few,” they
are stimulating the best thought of this age, and slowly infusing a
new life and spirit into it.
But the traditions of the stage are very strong in England, and
are not easily to be rooted out. The English public has become
accustomed to certain traditional and conventional modes of acting,
which interfere with the freedom of the actor, and cramp his genius
within artificial forms. There is almost no attempt on the English
stage to represent life as it really is. Tradition and convention stand
in the stead of nature. From the moment an actor puts his foot on
the stage he is taught to mouth and declaim. He studies rather to
make telling points than to give a consistent whole to the character
he represents. His utterance and action are false and “stagey.” In
quiet scenes he is pompous and stilted; in tragic scenes, ranting and
violent. He never forgets his audience, but, standing before the
footlights, constantly addresses himself to them as if they were
personages in the play. Habit at last becomes a second nature; his
taste becomes corrupted, and he ceases to strive to be simple and
natural. There is, in a word, no defect against which Hamlet warns
the actor which is not a characteristic feature of English acting. It
never “holds the mirror up to nature,” but is always “overdone,”
without “temperance,” full of mouthing, strutting, bellowing, and
noise. It “tears a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of
the groundlings.” And “there be players that I have seen play, and
heard others praise, and that highly, not to speak it profanely, that,
having neither the accent of Christians nor the gait of Christian,
pagan, nor Turk, have so strutted and bellowed, that I have thought
some of Nature’s journeymen had made men, and not made them
well, they imitated humanity so abominably;” and this needs to be
reformed altogether.
These words of Shakespeare show that even in his time the
inflated, pompous, and artificial style still in vogue on the English
stage was a national characteristic. We have scarcely improved,
since old traditions cling and hold the stage in mortmain. Reform
moves slowly everywhere in England; but the two institutions which
oppose to it the most obstinate resistance are the church and the
theatre. In both of these tradition stands for nearly as much as
revelation. Each adheres to its old forms, as if they contained its true
essence; each believes that those forms once broken, the whole
spirit would be lost; just as if they were phials which contained a
precious liquid, and must be therefore preserved at all costs. The
idea that the liquid can be quite as well, and perhaps better, kept in
different phials has never occurred to them. They will die for the
phial.
Still it is plain that a strong reaction against this bigoted
admiration of traditional and conventional forms is now perceptible.
The facilities of travel and intercourse with other nations have
engendered new notions and modified old ones. It is impossible to
compare the French and Italian stage with the English, and not
perceive the vast inferiority of the latter. In the one we see nature,
simplicity, and life; in the other, the galvanism of artificial
convention. It cannot be denied that the recent acting of Hamlet by
Fechter was to the English mind a daring and doubtful innovation. It
was something so utterly different in spirit and style from that to
which we have been accustomed that it created a sensation; and
while it found many ardent admirers, it found quite as many
vehement opposers. The public ranged themselves in two parties;
the one insisting that the traditional and artificial school, as
represented by Garrick, the elder Kean, and Cooke, was the only
safe guide for the tragic actor; and the other arguing that as the
true function of the stage was to hold up the mirror to nature, acting
should be as much like life and as little like acting as possible. The
former, at the head of which were the friends of Mr. Charles Kean,
made a public demonstration in his behalf, and scouted these
newfangled French notions of acting. Was it to be supposed that any
school of acting could be superior to that created and established in
England by the genius of such actors as Garrick, the elder Kean, and
Cooke? Should foreigners presume to teach us how to interpret and
represent plays which had been the study of the English people for
centuries? To this it was opposed that, however mortifying to us, it
was a fact that the Germans had led the way to a profounder and
more metaphysical study of Shakespeare, and had taught us in
many ways how to understand his plays, and that therefore there
was no reason why foreigners might not teach us how to act them.
The very fact that their eyes were not blinded, nor their tongues tied
by traditional conventions, enabled them to study Shakespeare with
more freedom and directness. There was no deep rut of ancient
usage out of which they were forced to wrench themselves. And,
besides, it was affirmed, and with truth, that the English stage is the
jeer of the world, and needs thorough reform.
We have indeed made little progress in reforming the stage. Mr.
Charles Kean has devoted his talents to improving the wardrobe and
scenery, and has so far done good service; but in the essential
matter of acting we are nearly where we were in the past century.
While the background and dresses are reformed, and the bag-wig in
which Garrick played Hamlet is thrown aside, we have carefully
preserved all the old points, all the stage-tricks, and all the stilted
intonations of the artificial school; and the consequence is, that the
sole reality is in that which is the least essential. The attention is
thus withdrawn from the actor to the scenery, and we have a
spectacle instead of a tragedy. The background is real, but the actor
is conventional; the blanket has usurped the prominent place, and
Shakespeare has retired behind it. The bursts of genius with which
Garrick startled the house, and made the audience forget his bag-
wig, are wanting, but all his tricks are preserved; the corpse is still
there, but the spirit he put into it is gone.
In comedy there is as little resemblance to real life as in tragedy;
humor and wit are travestied by buffoonery and grimace. Instead of
pictures of life as it is, we have grotesque daubs and caricatures, so
exaggerated and farcical in their character as to “make the judicious
grieve.” The actor and the audience react upon each other. The
audience are generally uneducated, and for the most part agree with
Partridge in his comment on “Hamlet:” “Give me the king for my
money,” says he. The actors must bow to this low taste,—
“For they who live to please must please to live.”

But tradition has worse sins to answer for. It has not only ruined
our national acting, but in some cases has overshadowed the drama
itself, and perverted the meaning of some of the greatest plays of
Shakespeare. Hamlet is not Hamlet on the English stage; he is the
tall, imposing figure of John Kemble; dark, melodramatic, and
dressed in black velvet. Strive as we will, we cannot imagine him as
the light-haired Dane, easy and dreamy of temperament, “fat and
scant of breath,” essentially metaphysical, hating physical action,
and wanting energy to put his thoughts into deeds. The whole spirit
of the acted Hamlet is southern; that of the real Hamlet is purely
northern. We have indeed broken through an old tradition, according
to which, incredible as it may seem, Shylock used to be acted as a
comic character, though we are still far from a real understanding of
his character. But of all the plays of Shakespeare none is so grossly
misunderstood as “Macbeth.” Nor is this misapprehension confined
to the stage; it prevails even among those who have zealously
studied and admired Shakespeare. As John Kemble stands for
Hamlet in our imaginations, so does Mrs. Siddons for Lady Macbeth.
She has completely transformed this wonderful creation of
Shakespeare’s, distorted its true features, and so stamped upon it
her own individuality, that when we think of one we have the figure
of the other in our minds. The Lady Macbeth of Mrs. Siddons is the
only Lady Macbeth we know and believe in. She is the imperious,
wicked, cruel wife of Macbeth, urging on her weak and kindhearted
husband to abominable crimes solely to gratify her own ambitious
and evil nature. She is without heart, tenderness, or remorse.
Devilish in character, violent in purpose, she is the soul of the whole
play; the plotter and instigator of all its horrors; a fiend-like creature,
who, having a complete mastery over Macbeth, works him to
madness by her taunts, and relentlessly drives him on against his
will to the commission of his terrible crimes. We hate her, as we pity
Macbeth. He is weak of purpose, amiable of disposition, “full of the
milk of human kindness,” an unwilling instrument of all her evil
designs, who, wanting force of will and strength of character, yields
reluctantly to her infernal temptations.
Nothing could more clearly prove the great genius of Mrs.
Siddons, than that she has been able so to stamp upon the public
mind this amazing misconception, that, despite all the careful study
which of late years has been given to Shakespeare, this notion of
the character of Lady Macbeth and Macbeth should still prevail. Yet
so deeply is it rooted, and so universal, that whoever attempts to
eradicate it will find his task most difficult. But, believing it to be an
utter distortion of the characters as Shakespeare drew them, and so
at variance with the interior thought, conduct, and development of
the play as not only entirely to obscure its real meaning, but to
obliterate all its finest and most delicate features, we venture to
enter upon this difficult task.
Macbeth and his wife, so far from being the characters above
described, are their direct opposites. He is the villain, who can never
satiate himself with crimes. She, having committed one crime, dies
of remorse. She is essentially a woman—acts suddenly and violently,
and then breaks down, and wastes her life and thoughts in bitter
repentance. He is, on the contrary, essentially a man—who resolves
slowly and with calculation, but once determined and entered upon
a course of action, obstinately pursues it to the end, haunted by no
remorse for his crimes, and agitated by no regrets and doubts, so
long as his wicked plans do not miscarry. The spring of his nature is
28
ambition; and in working out his ends he is cruel, pitiless, and
bloody. He is without a single good trait of character; and from the
beginning to the end of the play, at every step, he develops deeper
abysses of cruelty and inhumanity in his nature. When he is first
presented to us, we, in common with Lady Macbeth, are completely
unaware of his baseness. He is a thorough hypocrite, and deceives
us, as he deceived her. We see that he has a grasping ambition, but
we believe that he is amiable and weak of purpose, for so Lady
Macbeth tells us; but as the play goes on, his character develops
itself, and at last we find that he has neither heart nor tenderness
for anybody or anything; that his will is unconquerable; that he is
utterly without moral sense, is hopelessly selfish, and wickedly cruel.
All he loves is power. His ambition is insatiable. It grows by what it
feeds on. The more he has, the more he desires, and he is ready to
commit every kind of horror for the sake of attaining his object. He
is restrained by no scruples of honor, by no claims of friendship, by
no sensitiveness of conscience. He murders his sovereign, from
whom he has just received large gifts and honors in his own house;
and then instantly compasses the death of his nearest friend and
guest, Banquo. Not content with this, he then seeks the life of
Macduff; and, enraged because he has fled, savagely and in cold
blood puts the whole of his family to the sword. There is a steady
growth of evil in his character from the beginning to the end, or
rather a steady development of his evil nature.
Malcolm and Macduff, who at first were his friends and
companions, afterwards, when they had learned to “know” him, call
him “treacherous” and “devilish.” So far from agreeing in the
character given of him by Lady Macbeth, they say,—
 “Macduff. Not in the legions
Of horrid hell can come a devil more damned
In evil to top Macbeth.

Malcolm. I grant him bloody,

Luxurious, avaricious, false, deceitful,
Sudden, malicious, smacking of every sin
That has a name.”

Yet even they admit that

“This tyrant, whose sole name blisters our tongues,
Was once thought honest.”

As he had deceived the world, so he deceived his wife. His bloody

and treacherous nature was at first as unknown to her as to his
friends. As they thought him “honest,” she thought him amiable and
infirm of purpose, greatly ambitious, and one who would “wrongly
win,” but yet kindly of nature. Fiery temptations had not as yet
brought out the secret writing of his character. It was with Macbeth
as it was with Nero: their real natures did not exhibit themselves at
first; but when once they began to develop, their growth was rapid
and terrible. And in each of them there was a vein of madness.
Essentially a hypocrite, and secretive by nature, Macbeth had passed
for only a brave and stern soldier when he first makes his
appearance. Yet even in his fierce Norwegian fight we see a violent
and bloody spirit. In the very beginning of the play, one of his
soldiers describes him, in his encounter with Macdonald, as one
who,—
 “Disdaining fortune, with his brandished steel,
Which smoked with bloody execution,
Like Valour’s minion,
Carved out his passage till he faced the slave;
And ne’er shook hands nor bade farewell to him
Till he unseamed him from the nape to the chaps,
And fixed his head upon our battlements.”

This is rather a grim picture, and scarcely corresponds to the

character usually assigned to Macbeth. Here is not only no infirmity
of purpose, but a stern, unwavering resolution, carving its way
through all difficulties and against all opposition. Thus far, however,
all his deeds had been loyal and for a lawful purpose. Still within his
heart burnt, as he himself says, “black and deep desires,” and only
circumstances and opportunities were needed to show that he could
be as fierce and bloody in crime as he had shown himself in doing a
soldier’s duty. They were already urging him in the very first scene;
but, secretive of nature, he kept them out of sight.

“Stars, hide your fires;

Let not light see my black and deep desires;
The eye wink at the hand; yet let that be,
Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see.”

Thus he cries to himself as he speeds to his wife. The “murder,”

which was but an hour before “fantastical,” has now become a fixed
resolve.
A nature like this, secretive, false, deceitful, and wicked, which
had thus far satisfied itself in a legitimate way, and, having no
temptation in his own house, had never shown its real shape there,
would naturally not have been understood by his wife. Glimpses she
might have of what he was, but not a thorough understanding of
him. Blinded by her personal attachment to him, and herself
essentially his opposite in character, as we shall see, she would
naturally have misinterpreted him. The secretive nature is always a
puzzle to the frank nature. Accustomed to go straight to her object,
whether good or bad, she was completely deceived by his
hypocritical and sentimental pretenses, and supposed his nature to
be “full of the milk of human kindness.” But time also opened her
eyes, though, perhaps, never, even to the last, did she fully
comprehend him. “What thou wouldst highly, that wouldst thou
holily,” she would never have said after the murder of the king. But
however this may be, that her view of his character is false is proved
by the whole play. When did he ever show an iota of kindness? What
crime did his conscience or the desire to act “holily” ever prevent his
committing? When did he ever exhibit any want of bloody
determination? Infirm of purpose? He was like a tiger in his purposes
and in his deeds. The murder of Duncan did not satisfy him. The
next morning, he kills the two chamberlains, in cold blood, to gratify
his wanton cruelty. It was impossible that they should testify against
him—they had been drugged, and he could have had no fear of
them. Then immediately he plots the murder of Banquo and Fleance,
and all the while hypocritically conceals his foul purposes even from
his wife; and because Macduff “failed his presence at the tyrant’s
feast,” he determines also to murder him. Foiled of this, he then
cruelly and hideously puts to the sword his wife and little children. In
all these murders, after the king’s, Lady Macbeth not only takes no
part, but she is even kept in ignorance of them. She drive him to the
commission of his crimes? She does not know of them till they are
done. They are plotted and determined upon in secret by Macbeth
alone, and carried into execution with a bloody directness and
suddenness. He is “bloody, false, deceitful, sudden,”—essentially a
hypocrite, false in his pretenses, secret in his plotting, loud in his
showy talk, but sudden and bloody in his crimes and in his malice.
Thus far, however, we have seen but one side of Macbeth. The
other side was its opposite. Bold, ambitious, and treacherous, he
was also equally imaginative and superstitious. In action he feared
no man. Brave as he was cruel, and ready to meet anything in the
flesh, he was equally visionary of head, a victim of superstitious
fears, and a mere coward before the unreal fancies evoked by his
imagination. He has the Scottish second-sight, and visions and
phantoms shake his soul. Show him twenty armed men who seek his
life, he encounters them with a fierce joy. Show him a white sheet
on a pole, and tell him it is a ghost, and he trembles abjectly. He
conjures up for himself phantoms that “unfix his hair and make his
seated heart knock at his ribs;” he is distracted with “horrible
imaginings.” His excited imagination always plays him false and fills
him with momentary and superstitious fears; but these fears never
ultimately control his action. They are fumes of the head, and being
purely visionary, they are also temporary. They come in moments of
excitement, obscure for a time his judgment, and influence his
ideas; but having regard solely to things unreal, they vanish with the
necessity of action.
These superstitious fears have nothing to do with conscience or
morals. He has no morals; there is no indication of a moral sense in
any single word of the whole play. The only passage which faintly
indicates a sense of right and wrong is when he urges to himself, as
reasons why he should not kill Duncan, not only that the king is his
kinsman, his king, and his guest, but that he has borne his faculties
so meekly, that his virtues would plead like angels trumpet-tongued
against the deep damnation of his taking-off. This, however, is mere
talk, and has reference only to the indignation which his murder will
excite, not to any sorrow Macbeth has for the crime. His sole doubt
is lest he may not succeed; for, as he says,—
“If the assassination
Could trammel up the consequence, and catch,
With his surcease, success; that but this blow
Might be the be-all and the end-all here,
But here, upon this bank and shoal of time,—
We’d jump the life to come.”

The idea of being restrained from committing this murder by any

religious or moral scruples is very far from his thought. Right or
wrong, good or bad, have nothing to do with the question; and as
for the “life to come,” that is mere folly.
 But while his moral sense is dead, his imagination is nervously
alive. It engenders visions that terrify him: after the murder is done,
he thinks he hears phantom-voices crying, “Sleep no more! Glamis
hath murdered sleep; and therefore Cawdor shall sleep no more,
Macbeth shall sleep no more;” and these voices so work upon his
superstitious fears, that he is afraid for the moment to return to the
chamber, and carry the daggers back and smear the grooms with
blood. He is, as Lady Macbeth says, “brainsickly,” and “fears a
painted devil.” This is superstition, not remorse—a momentary
imaginative fear, not a permanent feeling. In a few minutes he has
changed his dress, and calmly makes speeches as if nothing had
occurred,—nay, this cold-blooded hypocrite is ready within the hour
to commit two new and wanton murders on the chamberlains, and
boastfully to refer them to his loyal spirit and loving heart, inflamed
by horror at the hideous murder of the king, which he has himself
committed.
The same superstitious fear attacks him when he hears that
Birnam Wood is moving to Dunsinane Hill; but it does not prevent
this creature, so “full of the milk of human kindness,” from striking
the messenger, calling him “liar and slave,” and threatening,—
“If thou speak’st false,
Upon the next tree shalt thou hang alive
Till famine cling thee.”

So, too, when Macduff tells him that he was “not of woman born,”
awed for a moment by his superstitious fears, he cries,—
“Accursed be that tongue that tells me so,
For it hath cow’d my better part of man!
... I’ll not fight with thee.”

At times, under the influence of an over-excitable imagination

acting upon a nature thoroughly superstitious, his intellect wavers,
and he is subject to sudden aberrations of mind resembling insanity.
They are, however, evanescent, and in a moment he recovers his
poise, descending through a poetical phase into his real and settled
character of cruelty and wickedness. In the dagger-scene, where he
is alone, these three phases are perfectly marked. The visionary
dagger “proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain” soon vanishes,
then follows the poetic mania, and then the stern resolution of
murder. In the banquet-scene, when the ghost of Banquo rises, the
poetic interval is less marked, for Macbeth is under the restraint of
the company and under the influence of his wife; but scarce has the
company gone when his real character returns. He is again forming
new resolutions of blood. His mind reverts to Macduff, whose life he
threatens. He is bent “to know, by the worst means, the worst;”
“strange things I have in head, that will to hand.”
This aberration of mind Macbeth has in common with Lear,
Hamlet, and Othello. But in Macbeth alone does it take a
superstitious shape. The trance of Othello is but a momentary
condition, in which his goaded imagination, acting upon an irritated
sense of honor, love, and jealousy, obliterates for an instant the real
world. Hamlet’s aberration, when it is not feigned, as for the most
part it is, is but the “sore distraction” of a mind upon which the
burden of a great action is fixed, which he is bound either to accept
or to reject, but in regard to which he hesitates, not because he
lacks decision of character, but solely because he cannot satisfy
himself that he has sure grounds for action, and that he is not
deceived as to the facts which are the motive of his action; once
satisfied as to the grounds for action, he is decisive and prompt, as
is clearly shown in the manner in which he disposes of Guildenstern
and Rosencrantz on board the vessel, and in the instant slaying of
the king himself, when the evidence of his infamy is clear. But while
he is yet undecided and struggling with himself to solve this sad
problem of the king’s guilt, he rejects all ideas of love as futile and
impertinent, and, more than that, doubts whether Ophelia herself is
not, unconsciously to herself, made a tool of by the king and queen.
Lear, again, is “heart-struck.” His madness comes from wounded
pride and affection. The ingratitude and cruelty of his daughters
shake his mind, and to his excited spirit the very elements become
his “pernicious daughters:” “I never gave you kingdoms, called you
children.” In all except Macbeth, the nature thus driven to madness
is noble in itself, moral in its character, and warm in its affections.
The aberrations of Macbeth are superstitious, and have nothing to
do with the morals or the affections.
Macbeth’s imagination is, however, a ruling characteristic of his
nature. His brain is always active; and when it does not evoke
phantoms, it indulges in fanciful and poetic images. He is a poet,
and turns everything into poetry. His utterance is generally excited
and high-flown, rarely simple and real, and almost never expresses
his true feelings and thoughts. His heart remains cold while his head
is on fire. On all occasions his first impulse is to poetize a little; and
having done this, he goes about his work without regard to what he
has said. His sayings are one thing; his doings are quite another.
Shakespeare makes him rant intentionally, as if to show that in such
a character the imagination can and does work entirely
independently of real feelings and passions. There is no serious
character in all Shakespeare’s plays who constantly rants and swells
in his speech like Macbeth; and this is plainly to show the complete
unreality of all his imaginative bursts. In this he differs from every
other person in this play. Yet when he is really in earnest, and has
some plain business in hand, he can be direct enough in his speech,
as throughout the second interview with the weird sisters, and in the
scene with the two murderers whom he sends to kill Banquo and
Fleance; or when, enraged at the escape of Fleance, he forgets to
be a hypocrite, and his real nature clearly expresses itself in direct
words, full of savage resolve. But on all other occasions, when he is
not in earnest and intends to deceive, or when his brain is excited,
he indulges in sentimental speeches, violent figures of speech,
extravagant personifications, and artificial tropes and conceits. Even
in the phantom-voices he imagines crying to him over Duncan’s
body, he cannot help this peculiarity. He curiously hunts out conceits
to express sleep. He “murders sleep, the innocent sleep; sleep, that
knits up the ravell’d sleeve of care, the death of each day’s life, sore
labor’s bath, balm of hurt minds, great nature’s second course, chief
nourisher in life’s feast.” No wonder that Lady Macbeth, amazed,
cries out, “What do you mean?” But he cannot help going on like a
mad poet. His language is full of alliteration, fanciful juxtaposition of
words, assonance, and jingle. At times, so strong is this habit, he
makes poems to himself, and for the moment half believes in them.
Only compare, in this connection, the natural, simple pathos of the
scene where Macduff hears of the barbarous murder of his wife and
children, with the language of Macbeth, when the death of Lady
Macbeth is announced to him. Macduff “pulls his hat upon his
brows,” and gives vent to his agony in the simplest and most direct
words. Here the feeling is deep and sincere:—
“All my pretty ones?
Did you say, all?—O hell-kite!—All?
What, all my pretty chickens, and their dam,
At one fell swoop?

Mal. Dispute it like a man.

Macd. I shall do so;

But I must also feel it like a man:
I cannot but remember such things were,
And were most precious to me.—Did heaven look on,
And would not take their part? Sinful Macduff,
They were all struck for thee! naught that I am,
Not for their own demerits, but for mine,
Fell slaughter on their souls. Heaven rest them now!

* * * * *
O, I could play the woman with my eyes.”

But when Macbeth is told of the death of his wife, he makes a little
poem, full of alliterations and conceits. It is an answer to the
question, What is life like? What can we say about it now?
 “To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Life’s but a walking shadow; a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.

Enter a Messenger.
Thou com’st to use thy tongue; thy story quickly.”

Has this any relation to true feeling? Do men of any feeling, whose
hearts are touched, fall to improvising poems like this, filled with
fanciful images, when great sorrows come upon them? This speech
is full of “sound and fury, signifying nothing.” There is no accent
from the heart in it. It is elaborate, poetic, cold-blooded. “Life is a
candle,” “a poor player,” “a walking shadow,” “a tale told by an idiot.”
We have his customary alliterations: “petty pace,” “dusty death,”
“day to day;” his love of repeating the same word, “to-morrow, and
to-morrow, and to-morrow,” just as we have “If it were done when
’tis done, then ’twere well it were done quickly;” and his “Sleep no
more, Macbeth does murder sleep,—sleep, that knits up,” etc.;
“Sleep no more! Glamis hath murdered sleep; and therefore Cawdor
shall sleep no more, Macbeth shall sleep no more.” He cannot forget
himself enough to cease to be ingenious in his phrases. As a poem
this speech is striking; as an expression of feeling it is perfectly
empty. At the end of it he has quite forgotten the death of his wife;
he is only employed in piling up figure after figure to personify life.
What renders the unreality of this still more striking is the sudden
change which comes over him upon the entrance of the messenger.
In an instant he stops short in his poem, and his tone becomes at
once decided and harsh; his wife’s death has passed utterly out of
his mind. When the messenger tells him that Birnam Wood is
beginning to move, with a sudden burst of rage he turns upon him,
calls him liar and slave, and threatens to hang him alive till famine
cling him, if his report prove to be incorrect. This is the real
Macbeth. From this time forward he never alludes to Lady Macbeth;
but, in a strange condition of superstitious fear and soldierly
courage, he calls his men to arms, and goes out crying,—
“Blow, wind! come, wrack!
At least we’ll die with harness on our back.”

And this throughout is the character of Macbeth’s utterances. He is

not like Tartuffe, a religious hypocrite; he is a poetical and
sentimental hypocrite. His phrases and figures of speech have no
root in his real life; they are only veneered upon them. “His words
fly up, his thoughts remain below.” When he is poetical he is never in
earnest. Sometimes his speeches are merely oratorical, and made
from habit and for effect; sometimes they are hypocritical, and used
to conceal his real intentions; and sometimes they are the
expression of an inflamed and diseased imagination stimulated by
superstition. But they are generally bombastic and swelling in tone,
and are so intended to be. His habit of making speeches and
inventing curious conceits is so strong, that he even “unpacks his
heart with words” when alone, so as to leave himself free and direct
to act. Thus, in one of his famous soliloquies, mark the unreal
quality of all the pretended feeling, the mixture of immorality,
bombast, and hypocrisy, the assonances and alliterations, the plays
upon words, the extravagant figures, all showing the excitability of
the brain and not of the heart:—
 “If it were done when ’tis done, then ’twere well
It were done quickly. If th’ assassination
Could trammel up the consequence, and catch,
With his surcease, success; that but this blow
Might be the be-all and the end-all here,
But here, upon this bank and shoal of time,—
We’d jump the life to come.”

Then, after some questions about killing his guest, his kinsman, his
king, which would seem honest, but for what comes after and for
the utter reckless immorality which has gone before these words, his
imagination excites itself, and runs into a wild and extravagant figure
which means nothing. Duncan’s virtues, he says,—
“Will plead like angels trumpet-tongued against
The deep damnation of his taking-off.”

No sooner does he begin to swell and alliterate again than he goes

wild:—
“And pity, like a naked new-born babe,
Striding the blast, or heaven’s cherubin, hors’d
Upon the sightless couriers of the air,
Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye,
That tears shall drown the wind.”

This is pure rant, and intended to be so. It is the product of an

unrestrained imagination which exhausts itself in the utterance. But
it neither comes from the heart nor acts upon the heart.
Again, in the soliloquy of the air-drawn dagger, the superstitious,
visionary Macbeth, who always projects his fancies into figures and
phantoms, after addressing this
“false creation
Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain,”
falls at once into poetic declamation about the night, and indulges
himself in strange images and personifications. A man about to
commit a murder who invents these conceits must be a poetical
villain:—
“Now witchcraft celebrates
Pale Hecate’s offerings; and wither’d murder,
Alarum’d by his sentinel, the wolf,
Whose howl’s his watch, thus with his stealthy pace,
With Tarquin’s ravishing strides, towards his design
Moves like a ghost.”

Can anything be more extraordinary and elaborate than this pressing

of one conceit upon another? Wither’d murder has a sentinel, the
wolf, who howls his watch, and who with stealthy pace strides with
Tarquin’s ravishing strides like a ghost! Shakespeare makes no other
character systematically talk like this.
But the fumes of the brain pass, and leave the stern, determined
man of action:—
“Whiles I threat, he lives;
Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives.
I go, and it is done; the bell invites me.
Hear it not, Duncan; for it is a knell
That summons thee to heaven, or to hell.”

We have no such rant as this in Lady Macbeth. In the scenes of

the murder, she does not befool herself with visions and poetry. She
is practical, and her attention is given solely to the real facts about
her. Contrast the simple language in which she speaks, while waiting
for Macbeth, with his previous rhodomontade. Agitated, in great
emotion, listening for sounds, doubting whether some mischance
may not have befallen to prevent the murder, she speaks in short,
broken sentences; but she does not liken her husband to Tarquin,
and say now is the time when “witchcraft celebrates pale Hecate’s
offerings,” nor employ this interval in making a poem full of conceits.
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