Week 3: Intermediate and Advanced SQL

L3.1: SQL Examples

• This lecture just consists examples of all the topics we have learned in Week 2.
• You can check the SQL Example video here �

L3.2: Intermediate SQL - Part 1

Nested Subqueries
• We can write a query (sub-query) inside a query, called a nested subquery.
• A subquery is a SELECT-FROM-WHERE expression that is nested within another query.
• The nesting can be done in the following SQL query:

SELECT A1 , A2 , … , An
FROM r1 , r2 , … , rm
WHERE B < operation > (subquery)

◦ Ai can be an attribute or an expression.

◦ ri can be a relation or a subquery.
◦ B is an attribute and operation to be performed on it.

Set Membership
• Set membership is used to check whether a particular tuple(row) is a member of a relation(table) or not.
• This can be done using IN and NOT IN operators.

SYNTAX:

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name
WHERE column1 IN (value1, value2, value3);

Example:

• Find the names of all the students who have taken a course in the Sep 2022 and Jan 2023 term.

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 SELECT distinct name
FROM stduents
WHERE term="Sep" and year=2022
AND id IN (
SELECT id
FROM students
WHERE term="Jan" and year=2023
);

Set Comparison

SOME Clause

• The SOME clause will give the result if the condition is true for at least one of the tuples in the subquery.

SYNTAX:

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name
WHERE column1 > SOME (SELECT column1 FROM other_table);

Example:

• Find the names of instructors with salary greater than that of some (at least one) instructor in the Biology
department

SELECT name
FROM instructor
WHERE salary > SOME (
SELECT salary
FROM instructor
WHERE dept_name="Biology"
);

ALL Clause

• The ALL clause will give the result if the condition is true for all of the tuples in the subquery.

SYNTAX:

SELECT column1
FROM table_name
WHERE column1 > ALL (SELECT column1 FROM other_table);

Example:

• Find the names of instructors with salary greater than that of all instructors in the Biology department

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 SELECT name
FROM instructor
WHERE salary > ALL (
SELECT salary
FROM instructor
WHERE dept_name="Biology"
);

EXISTS Clause

• The EXISTS clause will return True if the subquery returns at least one tuple, else it will return False .
• If it returns True , outer query retrives the specified columns from the sub query.

SYNTAX:

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS (subquery);

Example:

• Find all courses taught in both the Fall 2009 and Spring 2010 terms.

SELECT course_id
FROM section AS S1
WHERE semester="Fall" AND year=2009
AND EXISTS (
SELECT *
FROM section AS S2
WHERE semester="Spring" AND year=2010
AND S1.course_id = S2.course_id
);

NOT EXISTS Clause

• The NOT EXISTS clause will return True if the subquery returns no tuples, else it will return False , it's
the opposite of EXISTS clause.
• If it returns True , outer query retrives the specified columns from the sub query.

SYNTAX:

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE NOT EXISTS (subquery);

Example:

• Find all customers who do not have any orders.

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 SELECT *
FROM customers
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT *
FROM orders
Where orders.customer_id = customers.customer_id
);

Subqueries in FROM Clause

• SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the FROM clause.

SYNTAX:

SELECT col1, ...

FROM (
SELECT attr1, ...
FROM tableX, ...
WHERE condition
) AS table1
WHERE condition;

Example:

• Find the average instructors salaries of those deparatments whose average salary is greater than 40, 000.

SELECT dept_name, avg_salary

FROM (
SELECT dept_name, avg(salary) AS avg_salary
FROM instructor
GROUP BY dept_name
)
WHERE avg_salary > 40000;

WITH Clause

• The WITH clause is used to define a temporary relation (table) whose definition is available only to the
query in which the WITH clause occurs.

SYNTAX:

WITH temp_table_name(attribute_list) AS (
SELECT exp1, ...
FROM table1, ...
WHERE condition
)
SELECT temp_table_name.attribute1
FROM temp_table_name, ...
WHERE condition;

Example:
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 • Find all departments with the maximum budget

WITH max_budget(budget) AS (
SELECT max(budget)
FROM department
)
SELECT dept_name
FROM department, max_budget
WHERE department.budget = max_budget.budget;

• Find all orders having more than average total amount

WITH avg_total(total) AS (
SELECT avg(total_amount)
FROM orders
)
SELECT *
FROM orders, avg_total
WHERE orders.total_amount > avg_total.total;

Scalar Subquery
• Scalar Subquery is used where a single value is expected
• It gives Runtime Error if the subquery returns more than one tuple.

SYNTAX:

SELECT <attribute>, (
SELECT scalar_subquery
) AS <alias>
FROM <relation>;

Example:

• List all departments along with the number of instructors in each department.

SELECT dept_name, (
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM instructor
WHERE department.dept_name = instructor.dept_name
) AS num_instructors
FROM department;

CASE-WHEN Expression
• The CASE statement is used to evaluation a condition and return a value Yased on the outcome.
• The ELSE clause is used to specify a default value that will be returned if none of the conditions are met.

SYNTAX:

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 CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
...
ELSE result
END

Example:

• Give discount in total bill of 10% where bill is equal to or greater than 5, 000, and 5% where bill is less
than 5, 000.

SELECT order_id, (
CASE
WHEN total_amount >= 5000 THEN total_amount * 0.9
ELSE total_amount * 0.95
END
) AS total_after_discount
FROM orders;

L3.3: Intermediate SQL - Part 2

Join Expressions
• Join operations take two relations and returns as a result another relation.
• A join operation is a Cartesian product followed by a selection.
• The join operations are typically used as a subquery expressions in the FROM clause.

Example we will be using:

Course

course_id title dept_name credits

BIO-301 Genetics Biology 4

CS-190 Game Design Comp. Sci. 4

CS-315 Robotics Comp. Sci. 3

prereq

course_id prereq_id

BIO-301 BIO-101

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 course_id prereq_id

BIO-190 BIO-101

CS-347 CS-101

Cross Join
• CROSS JOIN returns the Cartesian product of the two relations.

Explicit Syntax:

SELECT *
FROM table1 CROSS JOIN table2;

Implicit Syntax:

SELECT *
FROM table1, table2;

Inner Join
• INNER JOIN returns the tuples from all the relations.
• It includes same column names from both the tables on which the join is performed.
• It includes only those tuples which satisfy the join condition.

INNER JOIN

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 Table 1 Table 2

SYNTAX:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column
INNER JOIN table3 ON table2.column = table3.column;

Example:

SELECT *
FROM Course
INNER JOIN prereq ON Course.course_id = prereq.course_id;

course_id title dept_name credits course_id prereq_id

BIO-301 Genetics Biology 4 BIO-301 BIO-101

CS-190 Game Design Comp. Sci. 4 CS-347 CS-101

Natural Join
• NATURAL JOIN returns the tuples from all the relations.
• It only includes one column name from which the join is performed.
• It only includes those tuples which satisfy the join condition.

NATURAL JOIN

Table 1 Table 2

SYNTAX:

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 SELECT columns
FROM table1
NATURAL JOIN table2;

Example:

SELECT *
FROM Course
NATURAL JOIN prereq;

course_id title dept_name credits prereq_id

BIO-301 Genetics Biology 4 BIO-101

CS-190 Game Design Comp. Sci. 4 CS-101

Outer Join
• OUTER JOIN returns the tuples from all the relations.
• It includes unmatched tuples from one or both the tables on which the join is performed.
• If there are no mathcing rows, NULL values are used.

LEFT OUTER JOIN

• LEFT OUTER JOIN returns all the tuples from the left table and only those tuples from the right table which
satisfy the join condition.
• If there are no matching rows, NULL values are used.

LEFT OUTER JOIN

Table 1 Table 2

SYNTAX:

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 SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example:

SELECT *
FROM Course
LEFT OUTER JOIN prereq ON Course.course_id = prereq.course_id;

course_id title dept_name credits prereq_id

BIO-301 Genetics Biology 4 BIO-101

CS-190 Game Design Comp. Sci. 4 CS-101

CS-315 Robotics Comp. Sci. 3 NULL

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

• RIGHT OUTER JOIN returns all the tuples from the right table and only those tuples from the left table which
satisfy the join condition.
• If there are no matching rows, NULL values are used.

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

Table 1 Table 2

SYNTAX:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example:

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 SELECT *
FROM Course
RIGHT OUTER JOIN prereq ON Course.course_id = prereq.course_id;

course_id title dept_name credits prereq_id

BIO-301 Genetics Biology 4 BIO-101

CS-190 Game Design Comp. Sci. 4 CS-101

NULL NULL NULL NULL CS-347

FULL OUTER JOIN

• FULL OUTER JOIN returns all the tuples from both the tables.
• If there are no matching rows, NULL values are used.

FULL OUTER JOIN

Table 1 Table 2

SYNTAX:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2 on table1.column = table2.column;

Example:

SELECT *
FROM Course
FULL OUTER JOIN prereq ON Course.course_id = prereq.course_id;

course_id title dept_name credits prereq_id

BIO-301 Genetics Biology 4 BIO-101

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 course_id title dept_name credits prereq_id

CS-190 Game Design Comp. Sci. 4 CS-101

CS-315 Robotics Comp. Sci. 3 NULL

NULL NULL NULL NULL CS-347

Views
• *A View is a Virutal table* derived from one or more underlying tables or views.

Purpose of Views
• Simplify complex queries
Views can encapsulate complex queries, making them easier to use and understand by providing a
simplified and tailored view of the data.
• Data security
Views can restrict access to certain columns or rows of the underlying tables, allowing you to control the
level of data visibility for different users.
• Data Abstraction
Views can provide an abstraction layer by presenting a logical representation of the data, hiding the
underlying structure and complexity of the data.

SYNTAX

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

(
SELECT column_list
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
);

Example
• A view of instructors without their salary

CREATE VIEW faculty AS

(
SELECT ID, name, dept_name
FROM instructor
);

• A view of department salary totals, max, min, and average

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 CREATE VIEW dept_analysis(
dept_name, total_salary, max_salary, min_salary, avg_salary
) AS (
SELECT dept_name, SUM(salary), MAX(salary), MIN(salary), AVG(salary)
FROM instructor
GROUP BY dept_name
);

Views Defined using Other views

CREATE VIEW CS_FALL_2020 AS

(
SELECT course.coruse_id, sec_id, building, room_number
FROM course, section
WHERE course.course_id = section.course_id
AND course.dept_name = "CS"
AND section.semester = "Fall"
AND section.year = 2020
);

• The above view can be used to create another view

CREATE VIEW CS_FALL_2020_BRAHMA AS

(
SELECT course_id, room_number
FROM CS_FALL_2020
WHERE building = "Brahma"
);

Types of Views
• Depend directly
A view is said to depend directly on a table if it is created using the FROM clause and the table is listed in
the FROM clause.
◦ Example: The following view depends directly on the customers table:

CREATE VIEW customers_with_high_balance AS

(
SELECT customer_id, name, balance
FROM customers
WHERE balance > 10000
);

• Depend on
A view is said to depend on a table if it is craeted using the FROM clause and the table is indirectly
referenced by another table that is listed in the FROM clause.
◦ Example: The following view depends on the orders table because the orders table is indirectly
referenced by the products table.

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 CREATE VIEW products_ordered_by_customers AS
(
product_id, name, quantity
FROM products
JOIN orders ON orders.product_id = products.product_id
WHERE order_status = 'Completed'
);

• Recursive views
A recursive view is a view that references itself in its FROM clause.
Recursive views can be used to create self-joins or to traverse a hierarchical data structure.
◦ Example: The following recursive view will return all customers and their children:

CREATE VIEW customers_and_children AS

(
SELECT customer_id, name,
(
SELECT customer_id, name
FROM customers
WHERE customers.parent_id = customer_id
) AS children
FROM customers
WHERE parent_id IS NULL
);

View Expansion
• It refers to the process by which a query involving a view is rewritten or expanded into an equivalent query
that directly accesses the underlying tables.
• When a query is executed against a view, the database system may interanlly perform view expansion to
optimize the query execution.
• Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself contain uses of view relations.
• View expansion of an expression repeats the following replacement step:

REPEAT
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replce the view realtion vi by the expression defining vi
UNTIL no more view relations are present in e1

• As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop with terminate.

Updation of a View
• Adding a new tuple to some view v1 lead to updation in the underlying base tables.

Example:

• Adding a new tuple to faculty view

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 INSERT INTO faculty
VALUES ('30123', 'Orange', 'Music');

• This insertion will represent insertion of this tuple in underlying instructor table

INSERT INTO instructor

VALUES ('30123', 'Orange', 'Music', null);

Materialized Views
• Materializing a view will create a physical table containing all the tuples in the result of the query defining
the view
• If relations used in the query are updated, the maerialized view will not be updated automatically.

L3.4: Intermediate SQL - Part 3

Transactions
• a Transaction is a group of one or more SQL statements that are treated as a single unit of work.
• If the transaction is successful, all of the data modifications made during the transaction are committed and
become a permanent part of the database.
• If the transaction encounters ERRORS and must be cancelled or rolled back, then all of the data
modifications are erased.
• Transactions commands comes under Transaction Control Language (TCL)

ACID Properties
• Transactions are used to ensure the ACID properties of data

Atomicity
• A transaction is an atomic unit of work.
• This means that either all of the statements in the transaction are executed successfully, or none of them
are executed.

Consistency
• A transaction must maintain the consistency of the database.
• This means that the database must be in a valid state after the transaction is committed.

Isolation
• Transactions must be isolated from each other.
• This means that the changes made by one transaction must not be visible to other transactions until the first

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 transaction has been committed.

Durability
• Once a transaction has been committed, the changes made by the transaction must be permanent.
• This means that they must not be lost even if the database crashes or the server loses power.

To start a transaction, we use the BEGIN TRANSACTION statement.

To commit a transaction, we use the COMMIT statement.

To rollback a transaction, we use the ROLLBACK statement.

Integrity Constraints
• Integrity constraints are rules or conditions that are defined on database tables to enforce data integrity
and maintain the consistency of data.
• Integrity constraints commands comes under Data Definition Language (DDL).

NOT NULL

• The NOT NULL constraint ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.

CREATE TABLE customers(

customer_id INT,
name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL
);

PRIMARY KEY

• The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.

CREATE TABLE customers(

customer_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL
);

UNIQUE

• The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different.

CREATE TABLE customers(

customer_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL UNIQUE
);

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 • It will make the column a candidate key.
• Candidate keys are permitted to be null.

CHECK(P) , where P is a predicate

• The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy a specific condition.

CREATE TABLE customers (

customer_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
balance INT CHECK (balance >= 0),
PRIMARY KEY (customer_id)
);

Referential Integrity
• It ensures that if a value of one attribute of a relation (table) references a value of another attribute on
another relation (table), then the referenced value must exist.

There are various types of referential integrity constraints, some are:

ON DELETE CASCADE

• This constraint specifies that if a row is deleted from the parent table, then all rows in child table that
reference the deleted row will also be deleted.

CREATE TABLE customers (

customer_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (customer_id)
);

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
customer_id INT NOT NULL,
order_date DATETIME NOT NULL,
total_amount INT,
PRIMARY KEY (order_id),
FOREIGN KEY (customer_id) REFERENCES customers (customer_id)
ON DELETE CASCADE
);

ON UPDATE CASCADE

• This constraint specifies that if a row is updated in the parent table, then all rows in child table that
reference the updated row will also be updated.

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 CREATE TABLE customers (
customer_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (customer_id)
);

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
customer_id INT NOT NULL,
order_date DATETIME NOT NULL,
total_amount INT,
PRIMARY KEY (order_id),
FOREIGN KEY (customer_id) REFERENCES customers (customer_id)
ON UPDATE CASCADE
);

ON DELETE SET NULL

• This constraint specifies that if a row is deleted from the parent table, then all rows in child table that
reference the deleted row will have the referencing column set to NULL .

CREATE TABLE products (

product_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (product_id)
);

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
product_id INT NOT NULL,
order_date DATETIME NOT NULL,
total_amount INT,
PRIMARY KEY (order_id),
FOREIGN KEY (product_id) REFERENCES products (product_id)
ON DELETE SET NULL
);

Alternative actions to cascade:

• NO ACTION
• SET DEFAULT
• RESTRICT

Built-in Data Types

DATE

• The DATE type is used for values with a date part but no time part.
• It's in the format: YYYY-MM-DD

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 • Example: DATE '2023-06-30'

TIME

• The TIME type is used for values with a time part.

• It's in the format: HH:MI:SS:MS
• Example: TIME '12:30:45' or TIME '12:30:45.56'

TIMESTAMP

• The TIMESTAMP type is used for values that contain both date and time parts.
• It's in the format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS:MS
• Example: TIMESTAMP '2023-06-30 12:30:45.56'

INTERVAL

• The INTERVAL type is used for values that is a period of time.

• Example: INTERVAL '1' DAY or INTERVAL '1' YEAR
• Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives an interval value
• Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values

Index
• An index is a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a database table at the
cost of additional writes and storage space to maintain the index data structure.

Example

CREATE TABLE customers (

customer_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (customer_id),
);
CREATE INDEX idx_name ON customers (email);

• Index uses a B-tree data structure to store data.

User-Defined Data Types

• We can create our own data types using the CREATE TYPE statement.

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 CREATE TYPE student_details AS (
name VARCHAR(255),
major VARCHAR(255),
)

CREATE TABLE students (

student_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
details student_details,
PRIMARY KEY (student_id)
);

Example table:

student_id details

(John Doe,
1
Computer Science)

(Jane Doe,
2
Accounting)

3 (Peter Smith, Engineering)

Domains
• A domain is a user-defined data type that has a set of valid values.

Example:

CREATE domain degree_level VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL

CONSTRAINT degree_level_test CHECK (value IN ('Foundation', 'Diploma', 'Degree'));

Large Objects Types

BLOB

• The BLOB type is used for storing large binary objects.

• Example: Storing images, audio, video, etc.

CLOB

• The CLOB type is used for storing large text objects.

• Example: Storing documents, HTML pages, XML data, etc.

When a query returns a large object, a pointer is returned rather than the large object itself.

Authorization

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 • Authorization is the process of determining whether a user has permission to access a database object.
• Authorization commands comes under Data Control Language (DCL).
• Forms of authorization on parts of the database:
◦ Read ( SELECT ) - Allow reading of data.
◦ Insert - Allow insertion of new data, not modification of existing data.
◦ Update - Allow modification of existing data.
◦ Delete - Allow deletion of data.
◦ all privileges - Allow all of the above.
• Forms of authorization to modify the database schema
◦ Index - Allow creation and deletion of indices
◦ Resources - Allow createion of new relations
◦ Alteration - Allow addition or deletion of attributes in a relation
◦ Drop - Allow deletion of relations

Authorization Specification
• Authorization is specified using the GRANT and REVOKE statements.

GRANT privileges ON relation/view_name TO user_list;

REVOKE privileges ON relation/view_name FROM user_list;

• user_list is a user-id, public, or a role.

• Granting a privilege on a view does not imply granting any privileges on underlying relations.

Roles
• A role is a named group of privileges.
• Roles can be granted to users.
• Creating a role

CREATE ROLE role_name;

◦ Example:

CREATE ROLE student;

• Granting a role to a user

GRANT role_name TO user_list;

◦ Example:

GRANT student to Param;

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 • Granting privilege to roles:

GRANT privilege ON relation/view_name TO role_name;

◦ Example:

GRANT SELECT ON students_records TO student;

• Roles can be granted to other roles.

GRANT role_name TO role_name2;

◦ Example:

GRANT TA TO student;

L3.5: Advanced SQL

Functions and Procedures

• Functions are procedures are created using Data Definition Language (DDL).

Functions
• Functions are used to perform a specific task such as performing calculations, transformations on data.
• Functions returns a value.
• Functions can be called from within other queries.

SYNTAX: Example function

CREATE FUNCTION sum2 (a INT, b INT) RETURNS INT

BEGIN
DECLARE sum INT;
SET sum = a + b;
RETURN sum;
END;

Calling

SELECT sum2(1, 2);

Procedures
• Procedures are used to perform actions on data such as inserting, updating, deleting rows from a table.
• Procedures do not return a value.

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 • Procedures cannot be called from within other queries.
• Procedures support control flow constructs such as conditional statements ( IF-THEN-ELSE ), loops
( WHILE , REPEAT & FOR ) and exceptional handling ( TRY-CATCH ).

SYNTAX: Example procedure

CREATE PROCEDURE my_procedure (IN val1 INT, IN val2 VARCHAR(30))

BEGIN
INSERT INTO my_table (column1, column2) VALUES (val1, val2);
END;

Invoking

CALL my_procedure(1, 'Hello');

Overloading
• SQL allows overloading of functions and procedures.
• This means that multiple functions/procedures can have the same name but different parameters.

Most database systems implement their own variant of the standard syntax.

Loops
• SQL supports two types of loops:
◦ WHILE loop
◦ REPEAT loop

WHILE loop

• The WHILE loop executes a block of code repeatedly as long as a condition is true.

SYNTAX: Example WHILE loop

WHILE condition DO
sequence of statements
END WHILE;

REPEAT loop

• The REPEAT loop executes a block of code repeatedly until a condition is true.
• This is similar to a DO-WHILE loop in other programming languages.

SYNTAX: Example REPEAT loop

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 REPEAT
sequence of statements
UNTIL condition
END REPEAT;

FOR loop

• The FOR loop executes a block of code repeatedly for a specified number of times.

SYNTAX: Example FOR loop using IN

FOR variable_name IN sequence_of_values DO

-- Body of the loop
END LOOP;

SYNTAX: Example FOR loop using AS

DECLARE
n INTEGER DEFAULT 0;
FOR r AS
SELECT budget FROM department
DO
SET n = n + r.budget;
END FOR;

Conditional Statements
• SQL supports two types of conditional statements:
◦ IF-THEN-ELSE statement
◦ CASE statement

IF-THEN-ELSE statement

• The IF-THEN-ELSE statement executes a block of code if a condition is true, otherwise it executes another
block of code.
• If none of the conditions are true, then the ELSE block is executed.

SYNTAX: Example IF-THEN-ELSE statement

IF condition THEN
sequence of statements
ELSEIF condition THEN
sequence of statements
ELSE
sequence of statements
END IF;

CASE statement
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 • The CASE statement executes a block of code based on a condition.
• It is similar to a switch-case statement in other programming languages.

SYNTAX: Example CASE statement

CASE
WHEN condition THEN
sequence of statements
WHEN condition THEN
sequence of statements
ELSE
sequence of statements
END CASE;

SEARCHED CASE statement

• The SEARCHED CASE statement executes a block of code based on a condition.

• It doesn't have condition, rather it matches the expression with certain value.

SYNTAX: Example SEARCHED CASE statement

CASE
WHEN sql-expression = value1 THEN
sequence of statements
WHEN sql-expression = value2 THEN
sequence of statements
ELSE
sequence of statements
END CASE;

Exception Handling
• Exception handling is used to handle errors that occur during execution of a program.
• SQL supports exception handling using the DECLARE EXIT HANDLER statement.
◦ The EXIT HANDLER is a block of code that will be executed when an exception occurs / raised.
◦ It can be used to perform any cleanup tasks such as rolling back a transaction or closing a connection.
• The SIGNAL statement is used to raise an exception.

SYNTAX: Example DECLARE EXIT HANDLER statement

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 DECLARE
custom_exception_name EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
-- Try to set the parameter value to 100
v_parameter_value := 100;

-- If the parameter value is not a number, raise the custom exception

IF NOT v_parameter_value IS NUMBER THEN
RAISE custom_exception_name;
END IF;

-- If the custom exception is not raised, continue with the rest of the procedure
END;

DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR custom_exception_name

BEGIN
-- Do something when the INVALID_PARAMETER_VALUE exception is raised
END;

Example

CREATE PROCEDURE divide_numbers (number1 INT, number2 INT)

BEGIN
DECLARE divide_by_zero CONDITION FOR SQLSTATE '22012';

DECLARE EXIT HANDLER FOR divide_by_zero

BEGIN
SELECT 'Division by zero error occurred!';
LEAVE divide_numbers;
END;

IF number2 = 0 THEN
SIGNAL divide_by_zero;
END IF;

SELECT number1 / number2;

END;

Note: This exmaple I found from the internet, it's not much clear, but I hope you got the idea, how to use it.

External Language Routines

• An external language routine is a user-defined routine (UDR) that is written in an external language.
• It has the ability to incorporate code written in external programming languages into SQL statements or
stored procedures.
• This feature allows developers to extend the functionality of SQL by leveraging the capabilities of other
programming languages.
• The database server supports UDRs written in a variety of external languages, including C, C++, Java, and

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 Python
• To create an external language routine, we use the CREATE EXTERNAL ROUTINE statement.
• The CREATE EXTERNAL ROUTINE statement specifies the name of the routine, the external language in
which it is written, and the location of the external code file.
• CALL statement is used to call an external language routine.

SYNTAX:

CREATE EXTERNAL ROUTINE factorial

LANGUAGE C
LIBRARY my_factorial_library
EXTERNAL NAME factorial

• This statement creates a UDR named factorial that is written in C. The my_factorial_library library
contains the code for the factorial routine. The factorial routine is called factorial in the external
code file.
• TO call the factorial UDR, we use the CALL statement as follows:

CALL factorial(5);

Triggers
• Ttrigger in SQL is a stored procedure that is automatically executed when a specific event occurs on a
table.
• Triggers can bew used to enforce business rules, maintain data integrity, maintain an audit trail of changes
and automate certain actions within a database.

SYNTAX:

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER } {INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE}
ON table_name
[REFERENCING {OLD | NEW} AS alias_name]
[FOR EACH {ROW | STATEMENT} ]
[WHEN (condition)]
BEGIN
-- Trigger logic and actions go here
END;

BEFORE triggers

• Run before an update or insert.

• Values that being updated or inserted can be modified before the database is actually modified.

BEFORE DELETE triggers

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 • Run before a delete.

AFTER triggers

• Run after an update, insert or delete.

• We can use triggers that run after an operation, such as:
◦ Update data in other tables
◦ Check against other data in the table or in other tables
◦ Run non-database operations coded in user-defined functions

There are 2 types of Triggers:

Row level triggers

• These are executed whenever a row is affected by the event on which the trigger is defined.
• Example:
◦ Suppose we have a table employee with columns id , name , salary and bonus . An UPDATE
statement is executed to increase the salary of each employee by 10%. A row level UPDATE trigger
can be defined to update the bonus column of the employee table based on the updated salary of the
employee.

Statement level triggers

• Statement level triggers perform a single action for all rows affected by a statement instead of executing a
separate action for each affected row.
• Use FOR EACH statement instead FOR EACH row .
• Example:
◦ Suppose we want to insert multiple rows into a table employee from another table employee_temp . A
statement level INSERT trigger will be executed once for the INSERT statement instead of executing a
separate trigger for each row inserted into the employee table.

Example: Trigger to maintain credits_earned value

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 CREATE TRIGGER credits_earned
AFTER UPDATE OF grades on takes
REFERENCING NEW ROW as nrow
REFEREnCING OLD ROW AS orow
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (nrow.grade <>'F' AND nrow.grade IS NOT NULL)
AND (orow.grade = 'F' OR orow.grade IS NULL)
BEGIN ATOMIC
UPDATE student
SET total_credit = total_credit + (
SELECT credits
FROM course
WHERE course.course_id = nrow.course_id
)
WHERE student.id = nrow.id
END;

Tutorial 3.1: Triggers (Case studies) �

• They have discussed 3 case studies where triggers can be used.

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