University of Sialkot, Pakistan

Name: Hajrah Qaiser

Roll no:08

Department: DPT

Submitted to: Respected Sir Moeez.

INTRODUCTION C

Assignment no 2

Mian
Question no 1 :-

Answer:

Registers:
Registers are small, high-speed storage locations within a CPU (Central
Processing Unit) that hold data temporarily during processing. They are used
to store instructions, addresses, and data that the CPU needs to access
quickly. Because registers are faster than other types of memory (like RAM),
they play a crucial role in the performance of the CPU.

Types of Registers in a CPU

Registers can be categorized based on their function and purpose. Here are
the main types of registers found in most CPUs:

1. General-Purpose Registers (GPRs):

Description: These registers can hold data, addresses, or any other information that the
CPU needs during execution. They are not dedicated to a specific function, allowing for
flexibility in programming.

Example: In x86 architecture, registers like EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX are general-purpose
registers.

Usage: They are used for arithmetic operations, data manipulation, and temporary storage
of intermediate results.

2. Special Purpose Registers:

Description: These registers have specific functions and are used for
particular tasks within the CPU.
Types:
Accumulator (ACC):
Used to store intermediate results of arithmetic and logic operations.
Program Counter (PC):
 Holds the address of the next instruction to be executed. It increments
automatically after fetching an instruction.
Instruction Register (IR):
Holds the current instruction being executed. It is loaded from memory and decoded by the
CPU.

Stack Pointer (SP):

Points to the top of the stack in memory, which is used for function calls, local variables, and
control flow.

Base Register (BR):

Used in indexed addressing modes to hold the base address of a data segment.

Index Register (IX):

Used for indexed addressing, allowing for efficient access to arrays and data structures.

3. Status Register (or Flags Register):

Description: This register contains flags that provide information about the status of the CPU
and the results of operations. Each bit in the status register represents a different condition or
state.

Flags:
Zero Flag (ZF): Set if the result of an operation is zero.
Carry Flag (CF): Set if there is a carry out from the most significant bit during an arithmetic
operation.

Sign Flag (SF): Indicates the sign of the result (positive or negative).
Overflow Flag (OF): Set if an arithmetic overflow occurs.
Usage : The status register is crucial for decision-making in branching and looping
operations.

4. Memory Address Register (MAR) :

Description : This register holds the address of the memory location that the CPU wants to
read from or write to.
 Usage : It acts as a bridge between the CPU and memory, ensuring that the correct data is
accessed during read and write operations.

5. Memory Data Register (MDR) :

Description : Also known as the Memory Buffer Register (MBR), it holds the data that is
being transferred to or from memory.

Usage : When the CPU reads data from memory, the data is first loaded into the MDR
before being processed. Similarly, when writing data to memory, the data is placed in the MDR
before being sent to the specified address.

6. Control Register :
Description : These registers are used to control various aspects of the CPU's operation,
including enabling or disabling certain features and managing the execution of instructions .

Example : In x86 architecture, control registers like CR0, CR2, CR3, and CR4 are used for
managing memory management and protection.

Summary:
Registers are essential components of a CPU that facilitate fast data processing and instruction
execution. The various types of registers serve different purposes, from general data storage to
specific control functions, and they significantly impact the overall performance and efficiency
of the CPU. Understanding these registers is crucial for low level programming, computer
architecture, and system design.

Question no 2 :

Answer:

Instruction set:
An instruction set is a collection of machine language instructions that a CPU can execute. It
defines the operations that the CPU can perform, the data types it can manipulate, the
addressing modes it supports, and the registers it can use. The instruction set serves as the
interface between software and hardware, allowing programmers to write programs that the
CPU can understand and execute.

Types of Instructions in Modern Computers

Modern instruction sets can be broadly categorized into several types, each serving different
purposes. Here are the main types of instructions along with examples:

Data Movement Instructions:

 Description: These instructions are used to transfer data between registers,
memory, and I/O devices.
 Examples:

 MOV: This instruction copies data from one location to another. For
example, MOV AX, BX copies the contents of register BX into register AX.
 LOAD: This instruction loads data from memory into a register. For
example, LOAD R1, 0x1000 loads the data from memory address 0x1000
into register R1.

Arithmetic Instructions:
 Description: These instructions perform arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Examples:

 ADD: This instruction adds two operands. For example, ADD AX, BX adds
the contents of register BX to register AX and stores the result in AX.
 SUB: This instruction subtracts one operand from another. For
example, SUB R1, R2 subtracts the contents of register R2 from R1 and
stores the result in R1.

Logical Instructions:
 Description: These instructions perform bitwise operations such as AND, OR, NOT,
and XOR.
 Examples:

 AND: This instruction performs a bitwise AND operation. For

example, AND AX, BX performs a bitwise AND between the contents of
AX and BX, storing the result in AX.
 OR: This instruction performs a bitwise OR operation. For example, OR
R1, R2 performs a bitwise OR between R1 and R2 and stores the result in
R1.

Control Flow Instructions:

  Description: These instructions alter the sequence of execution of instructions,
allowing for branching and looping.
 Examples:

 JMP: This instruction causes an unconditional jump to a specified address.

For example, JMP 0x2000 jumps to the instruction located at memory
address 0x2000.
 CALL: This instruction calls a subroutine. For example, CALL
myFunction jumps to the address of myFunction, saving the return
address on the stack.

Comparison Instructions:
 Description: These instructions compare two operands and set flags based on the
result, which can be used for conditional branching.
 Examples:

 CMP: This instruction compares two operands. For example, CMP AX,
BX compares the contents of AX and BX and sets the appropriate flags
based on the result.
 TEST: This instruction performs a bitwise AND operation between two
operands but does not store the result. For example, TEST AX,
0x01 checks if the least significant bit of AX is set.

Shift and Rotate Instructions:

 Description: These instructions shift or rotate the bits of a register to the left or
right, which can be useful for multiplication, division, and bit manipulation.
 Examples:

 SHL (Shift Left): This instruction shifts the bits of a register to the left. For
example, SHL AX, 1 shifts the bits in AX one position to the left, effectively
multiplying the value by 2.
 ROR (Rotate Right): This instruction rotates the bits of a register to the
right. For example, ROR BX, 1 rotates the bits in BX one position to the
right.

Input/Output Instructions:
 Description: These instructions are used to perform input and output operations with
peripheral devices.

 Examples:
  IN: This instruction reads data from an I/O port. For example, IN AL,
0x60 reads a byte from I/O port 0x60 into the AL register.
 OUT: This instruction writes data to an I/O port. For example, OUT 0x60,
AL writes the contents of the AL register to I/O port 0x60.

Summary
The instruction set is a fundamental aspect of computer architecture, defining how software
interacts with hardware. The various types of instructions—data movement, arithmetic, logical,
control flow, comparison, shift and rotate, and input/output