HOW OUR BRAINS

RELATE TO
MEMORY?

Unit 6 Brain

More on Biological
POP QUIZ ON HM

HAHAHAHAHAHAHAHAHA
ANSWERS

1. The medial temporal lobe

2. He developed anterograde amnesia & partial retrograde
amnesia
3. The transfer of STM to LTM
4. Episodic & semantic memories
5. Procedural (describes our implicit knowledge of tasks that
usually do not require conscious recall to perform them -
refers to our knowledge of skills and how to perform tasks)
emotional & habitual memories (past reenacted through
body)
6. The amygdala
WHAT HAPPENS IF
YOU DAMAGE THE
HIPPOCAMPUS?

Robert Sapolsky
LO CA L I Z AT I O N
OF FUNCTION

Give me some sentences!

LO CA L I Z AT I O N O F
FUNCTION
Different parts of the brain have different
functions which play a role in human behaviour
In the field of brain research - 2 opposing camps
1. argues that behaviour is localized
2. proposes the equipotential theory - asserts
that all areas of the brain are equally active in
overall mental functioning
• according to this theory, the effects of
damage to the brain are determined by the
extent rather than the location of the damage
• J. Hughlings Jackson argued that the most
basic skills are localized but that most
complex mental functions combined these
skills so extensively that the whole brain was
actually involved in most types of behaviour
BRAIN STRUCTURE

• The nervous system is a physiological system composed of neurons (cells) that

carry out the function of communication throughout the body.

• The central nervous system is composed of the spinal cord and the brain.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND

 BRAIN STRUCTURE
• major parts of the human brain :
Cortex
Cerebellum
Limbic System
Brain Stem

The Cortex: is a layer of neurons (brain cells) that cover the outer part of the brain. Its the “folded” part that
gives the brain the “wrinkles”
• The brain cortex is
responsible for higher order
and abstract thinking.
• It also is the most recent to
evolve in human evolution.
Meaning it is the “newest”
part of the human brain.
• The Brain Cortex is composed
of 4 main location:
1.) Frontal lobe – associated
with reasoning, planning,
thinking, decision making,
voluntary action and complex
emotions.
2.) Parietal lobe – associated
with movement, perception
and recognition.
3.) Occipital lobe –
associated with visual
4.) Temporal lobes –
associated with auditory,
memory and speech
§ The brain is divided into
two sections the left and
right hemisphere.
§ Dividing these two
hemispheres is a mass of
neurons called the
corpus callosum.
• Below the brain cortex is a structure called the
cerebellum or (little brain) because it looks
like another cortex.

• Like the brain cortex it has two hemispheres

and has a folded surface

• The cerebellum is associated with movement

and balance.
 • The limbic system is an evolutionarily older
part of the brain located in the inner regions of
the brain. Sometimes referred to as the
“emotional brain”.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

• The limbic system is composed of
several structures:
1.) The thalamus is mostly responsible
as a sensory “relay station” for the
sensory organs. Nearly all sensory
organs have nerves which connect to
the thalamus.
2.) The hypothalamus is just “under”
the thalamus and is responsible for the
functions such as emotions, thirst and
hunger.
3.) The amygdala is involved in memory, emotion and fear.

4.) The hippocampus is important in the functions of

learning, memory and converting short-term memories
into long-term memories and spatial orientation.
• The brain stem is just underneath the
limbic system. The brain stem controls
our more “basic” functions vital for life,
such as breathing and heartbeat.
• Key: it connects the brain to the spinal
cord and is similar to the brains of lower
animals such as reptiles. Because of
this sometimes it is referred to as the
“reptile brain”
Comparing mammal and
reptile brain we see the
brain stem is similar in
shape and even function
HOW DO WE STUDY THE BRAIN?

• Case studies of brain damage

• Animal experiments

• Use of brain imaging technologies

• Studies on neuroplasticity
CASE STUDIES

• HM (Milner, 1966): role of hippocampus

• EP - Eugene Pauly (Squire, 1992, 2002): role of the basal ganglia

ANIMAL
EXPERIMENTS

• The video shows research on

memories that are actually classically
conditioned responses

Thompson (1986)

the removal of the interpositive nucleus

in the cerebellum removes the memory
of an association between a tone and a
puff of air that caused the rabbits to blink
à indicates that some memories are
processed and stored in the cerebellum
ACTIV IT Y: BRAIN MESEUM

Time for you to be a specialists on a specific part of the brain! And we are holding an exhibition!
1. Amygdala
2. Basal ganglia
3. Hippocampus
4. Hypothalamus
5. Insular cortex
6. Nucleus accumbens
7. Prefrontal cortex
8. Temporal lobe
POSTERRRR AGAIN ;) FOR EXHIBITION THIS TIME!

Things you need to cover!

• Describe where your "brain part" is located in the brain.

• Provide a general overview of the functions of your part of the brain with regard to behaviour.

• Provide evidence of what your part of the brain does - provide case studies or experimental research
that support the localization of function.

• Highlight: Why you can't live without this part of the brain?/ What would we be like if this part of the
brain didn't exist?
BRAIN MUSEUM

• Display all of your finished products around the classroom, and as in a real museum

• walk around the classroom & look at the posters

• a blank sheet of paper next to each of the posters / Post-it notes: write questions & comments in
response to the posters that you are seeing
SAQ TIMEEEEEEE
NEUROPLASTICITY
FROM THE VIDEO…

• the way that we interact with our

environment may have an effect on our
brains' development

Neuroplasticity:
• term used to describe the changes in
neural pathways and synapses due to
changes in behaviour, environment,
thinking, emotions, as well as changes
resulting from bodily injury
• refers to the ability of the brain to change
as a result of one's experience
ROSENZWEIG, BENNET & DIAMOND (1972)

Procedure
• wanted to see if changing the level of stimuli in the environment would result in physical changes in the brain
• Aim: to investigate whether environmental factors such as a rich or an impoverished environment would affect the
development of neurons in the cerebral cortex
3 male rats from a common litter were randomly allocated to one of three environments - all had free and adequate access to
food and water
• Control: three rats in the cage
• Impoverished: placed each rat in individual cages: individual cages lacked the toys & the maze which were in the enriched
environment
• Enriched: placed 10 - 12 rats in a cage containing different stimulus objects to explore and play with
rats typically spent 30 - 60 days in their respective environments before they were killed in order for the researchers to
study changes in the brain's anatomy
R E S U LTS & I M P L I CAT I O N S
Results

anatomy of the brain was different in the EC & IC

• increased thickness & higher weight of the cortex in EC rats compared to that of IC rats

• rats in the EC condition had developed significantly greater activity in the neurons in the cerebral cortex
associated with transmission of acetylcholine - an important neurotransmitter for learning and memory

Since brain plasticity is assumed to follow the same pattern in both animals and humans

à implications: human brain should also be affected by environmental factors e.g. intellectual & social
stimulation

à now known that poverty is a major risk factor in children’s cognitive development as poverty is related to
many risk factors such as poor nutrition, lack of access to good education and poor health
 • 2 different theories as to why the brains of the rats
changed
1. "arousal response" leads to brain development -
that is, the arousal that the rats experience when
being in a novel & complex environment
àincreased motor behaviour which may lead
to neurogenesis - the. creation of new nerve cells
CRITICAL 2. "learning and memory hypothesis" : neurogenesis
& dendritic branching is the result of learning from
THINKINGGGG
interacting with the environment
• highly controlled laboratory experiment à establish a
cause and effect relationship
• research results have been replicated many times
• questionable to what extent we can generalize from
animal research to humans
 • very difficult to separate out the variables that may have led to the
changes in brain structure
• rats in the "enriched environment" were exposed to a
combination of complex inanimate and social stimulation
• could be the interaction of factors - social and inanimate - that
lead to the observed plasticity
• putting rats alone in large cages with toys for two hours a day
CRITICAL showed no effect à single rat tended not to play with the
objects and instead rested and groomed himself à enriched
THINKINGGGG environment produced cerebral changes in a single rat only if
the rat was stimulated to interact with the objects
• serious ethical concerns about this study
Not only were some rats isolated and put into an impoverished
environment, but they were killed at the end of the study
A cost-benefit analysis should demonstrate that the goals of the
study are worth the harm done to the animals
MORE ON ANIMAL STUDIES
UNDER BIOLOGICAL
APPROACH - HL

WAIT FOR MORE~

NEUROPLASTICITY
AND MEMORY

• Knowing more on potential localization

of function CAN by looking at
neuroplasticity in areas of the brain
associated with memory

2 key studies:

• Maguire (2000)

• Draganski et al (2004)
PAI R WO R K

2 Parts
Part 1 10 mins

• Allocate 2 studies among yourself

• Read one each; highlight key points & check al the details
Part 2 10 mins

• Explain to your partner what you have read and understood

• Jot notes while listening

 MORE ON
MAGUIRE (2000)

Taxi Drivers in London

DISCUSS

1. Is the same method used in both studies?

2. How do we know that this is not a case of bidirectional ambiguity in both studies? People with
different types of brains become taxi drivers or jugglers?

3. Since the study took place in an MRI, the study lacks ecological validity. True or false?

4. How might the sample have influenced the results of each study?

5. Are there any ethical considerations with the studies?

SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Is the same method used in both studies?

Both are experiments. Maguire is a quasi-experiment as participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions. Draganski is a true experiment.

2. How do we know that this is not a case of bidirectional ambiguity in both studies? People with different types of brains become taxi drivers or jugglers?

Maguire found a correlation in size of the hippocampus and the amount of time driving. This argues against the idea that they became taxi drivers because they had larger
hippocampi. Draganski established a baseline for both groups before the study began. His team could measure change over time.

3. Since the study took place in an MRI, the study lacks ecological validity. True or false?

False. The MRI was simply the tool used to measure brain structure. This does not affect ecological validity as it is not a behaviour that is being measured, it is grey matter.

4. How might the sample have influenced the results of each study?

In Maguire's study, it could be argued that the gender of the sample played a role. However, most taxi drivers at the time were male, so this is a representative sample. In
Draganski's study, the age of the participants could have played a role. Much younger or much older participants may have had more or less change over time in their
brains as a result of learning a new skill.

5. Are there any ethical considerations with the studies?

Yes. In both studies, they would have to get informed consent and the participants would need to know that they could withdraw from the experiment at any time. Especially
since people may experience anxiety being in an MRI, this is important. In Maguire's study, two people withdrew as a result of anxiety in the MRI tunnel.
SAQ TIMEEEEEEE