Basic Electronics Engineering

Unit I
Diodes and Applications
Prof. Arundhati N. Birari
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials whose
conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators.
• 1) Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• Purity: Pure semiconductors without any significant
impurities
• Electrical conductivity: Low at room temperature,
and primarily dependent on temperature
• Charge carriers: The number of electrons equals the
number of holes
• Examples: Silicon and germanium
• 1) Extrinsic Semiconductors:
• Purity: Pure semiconductors that have been
doped with impurities
• Electrical conductivity: High at room
temperature, and dependent on temperature
and the concentration of the dopant
• Charge carriers: The number of electrons is
not equal to the number of holes
• Types: N-type and p-type semiconductors
How are extrinsic semiconductors made?
• Impurities are added to intrinsic semiconductors to
enhance their conductivity
• Impurities can be pentavalent (five electrons in the
valence shell) or trivalent (three electrons)
• Pentavalent impurities are used to make N-type
semiconductors
• Boron is used to make p-type semiconductors
 P-type semiconductor
• Trivalent impurity atoms such as indium,
gallium are added to an intrinsic
semiconductor
• In this semiconductor, the majority charge
carriers are holes whereas minority charge
carriers are electrons.
• The hole’s density is higher than
the electrons density. The accepts level mainly
lies nearer to the valence band.
• This is called an acceptor atom.
 N-type semiconductor
• The pentavalent impurity atoms such as Sb, As
is added to an intrinsic semiconductor.
• In this semiconductor, the majority charge
carriers are electrons whereas minority charge
carriers are holes. The electrons density is
higher than the density of the holes.
• this is called a donor Atom.
 What is P-N Junction?
• Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a
boundary between two semiconductor material
types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a
semiconductor.
• When a p-n junction is being formed, holes diffuse
from the p-side to the n-side (p→n) while electrons
diffuse from the n-side to the p-side (n→p). This
happens due to the concentration gradient across p
and n sides. This gives rise to a diffusion current
across the junction.
Electron Diffuses from n→p
• This diffusion leaves an ionized donor (or a positive charge) on
the n-side. This donor is bonded to the surrounding atoms
and is immobile. As more and more electrons start diffusing to
the p-side, a layer of positive charge (or positive space-charge
region) in the n-side of the junction is formed.
Hole Diffuses from p→n
• This diffusion leaves an ionized acceptor (or a negative
charge) on the p-side. As more and more holes start diffusing
to the n-side, a layer of negative charge (or negative space-
charge region) on the p-side of the junction is formed.
• Since the diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction
depletes the region of its free charges, these space charge
regions together are called the depletion region/Layer.
P-N Junction Formation Process
• Also, an electric field develops, directed from the p-
side to the n-side of the junction. This is because of
the positive space-charge region on the n-side and
the negative space-charge region on the p-side of the
junction.
• This electric field is responsible for the movement of
electrons from the p-side to the n-side and holes
from the n-side to the p-side. This motion of charged
carriers due to the electric field is called drift. Hence,
a drift current starts which is opposite in direction to
the diffusion current.
• When the diffusion starts, the diffusion current is large
and the drift current is very small. As diffusion
continues, the space-charge regions on either side of
the junction start extending. This strengthens
the electric field and eventually the drift current. The
process continues till diffusion current = drift current.
This is how a p-n junction is formed.
Barrier Potential
• In the state of equilibrium, there is no current in a p-n
junction. A difference of potential develops across the
junction of the two regions due to the loss of electrons
by the n-region and the subsequent gain by the p-
region. The polarity of the potential opposes the
further flow of carriers to maintain the state of
equilibrium. This is the Barrier Potential
 Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode
• There are two operating regions in the P-N junction
diode:
P-type
N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction
diode, and this is based on the voltage applied:
• Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N
junction diode.
• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage
potential is connected to the p-type while the negative
terminal is connected to the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage
potential is connected to the p-type and the positive is
connected to the n-type.
 Forward Bias
• The p-n junction is said to be forward-biased
when the p-type is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and the n-type to the
negative terminal. The built-in electric field at
the p-n junction and the applied electric field
are in opposing directions when the p-n
junction is forward biased.
• The resulting electric field is smaller than the
built-in electric field when both electric fields
are added together. As a result, the depletion
area becomes less resistant and thinner. When
the applied voltage is high, the resistance of
the depletion zone becomes insignificant. At
0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion area in
silicon becomes absolutely insignificant,
allowing current to flow freely over it.
 Reverse Biased PN Junction
• The p-n junction is said to be reverse-biased
when the p-type is linked to the negative
terminal of the battery and the n-type is
attached to the positive side. The applied
electric field and the built-in electric field are
both in the same direction in this situation.
• The resultant electric field is in the same
direction as the built-in electric field, resulting
in a more resistive, thicker depletion zone. If
the applied voltage is increased, the depletion
area gets more resistant and thicker.
VI Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
 Forward bias
• When the p-n junction diode is in forwarding bias, the p-
type is linked to the positive terminal of the external
voltage, while the n-type is connected to the negative
terminal. The potential barrier is reduced when the diode is
placed in this fashion. When the voltage is 0.7 V for silicon
diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes, the potential
barriers fall, and current flows.

• The current grows slowly while the diode is under

forwarding bias, and the curve formed is non-linear as the
voltage supplied to the diode overcomes the potential
barrier. Once the diode has crossed the potential barrier, it
functions normally, and the curve rises quickly as the
external voltage rises, yielding a linear curve.
 Reverse Bias
• When the PN junction diode is under negative
bias, the p-type is linked to the negative terminal
of the external voltage, while the n-type is
connected to the positive terminal. As a result,
the potential barrier becomes higher. Because
minority carriers are present at the junction, a
reverse saturation current occurs at first.
• When the applied voltage is raised, the kinetic
energy of the minority charges increases,
affecting the majority charges. This is the point at
which the diode fails. The diode may be
destroyed as a result of this.
 Applications of PN Junction Diode
• A most common use case of a PN junction diode is as a
rectifier which means converting AC current into DC
current.
• Zener diode (which is a special type of PN junction
diode) is used in circuits for voltage regulation.
• As Diode only conducts current in Forward bias, so in
electrical circuits, it is used as a switch to turn on and
off certain small circuits in a much more complex
circuit.
• A reverse-biased p-n junction diode is utilized as a
photodiode as it is sensitive to light.
• LED is also a special type of PN junction diode on a
forward basis which emits light.
 Diode As a Switch
• A diode has a PN junction which is doped up with
impurities. The P-region in a diode is lightly doped with
impurities whereas the N-region is heavily doped with
impurities. Different amounts of dopants are used for
this purpose.
• The diodes like silicon have a certain reference voltage.
Any voltage applied to the diode below this reference
voltage decreases the resistance of the diode which
makes the diode forward-biased. In forward-biased
conditions, the diode acts as a closed switch. When the
applied voltage increases the threshold, it increases
the resistance of the diode. Under this condition, the
diode is reverse-biased. This makes the circuit open
and the diode acts as an open-switch. Let us see the
working through the circuit diagram.
As explained above, when the
voltage applied to the diode is
greater than the reference
voltage, the resistance of the
diode increases due to
increase in the width of the
depletion region. Under this
reverse biased condition, a
reverse current flows through
the diode for a small period of
time. After this small period of
time, the switch turns OFF ,
the reverse current is directly
proportional to the leakage
current.
 Applications of Diode
• Used as an Rectifiers
• Voltage controlled Oscillators
• Use to create temperature sensor
• Used as an photo diode
• Used as a solar cell
• Clippng and clamping circuits
 Half-wave rectifiers transform

• Half-wave rectifiers transform AC voltage to

DC voltage. A halfwave rectifier circuit uses
only one diode for the transformation. A
halfwave rectifier is defined as a type of
rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an
AC voltage waveform to pass while blocking
the other half cycle.
 Working of Half Wave Rectifier
• A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of
the step-down transformer. The obtained secondary
low voltage is applied to the diode.
• The diode is forward biased during the positive half
cycle of the AC voltage and reverse biased during the
negative half cycle.
• For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage,
the diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch.
• During the negative half cycle of the AC source
voltage, When a diode is reverse biased, it acts as an
open switch. Since no current can flow to the load,
the output voltage is equal to zero.
Circuit Diagram
Half Wave Rectifier Waveform
 Half Wave Rectifier Formulae
• Efficiency of HWR
The efficiency of HWR is defined as the ration output DC power to the
input AC power.
η=Pdc/Pac
The maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%.
• Peak Inverse Voltage of HWR
The peak inverse voltage of a HWR is the maximum voltage that can a
diode withstand without
destruction when reverse bias is applied to it.
PIV=Vm
• RMS Value of Load Current of HWR
IRMS=Im/2
• Average Value of Load Current of HWR
Iavg=Im/π
• Form Factor of HWR
FormFactor=RMSValue/Avg.Value=Vrms/Vavg
For HWR the form factor equals to 1.57
• Ripple Factor of HWR
Ripple Factor gives the information about how a HWR can transform
input AC voltage to output DC
voltage
It is given by
RippleFactor=root of((FormFactor)2−1)
The ripple factor for half wave rectifier is 1.21.

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

• They are used for signal demodulation purpose
• They are used for rectification applications
• They are used for signal peak applications

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

• Power loss
• Low output voltage
• The output contains a lot of ripples
 Full Wave Rectifier
• Electric circuits that convert AC to DC are
known as rectifiers. Rectifiers are classified
into two types as Half Wave Rectifiers and Full
Wave Rectifiers. Significant power is lost while
using a half-wave rectifier and is not feasible
for applications that need a smooth and
steady supply. For a more smooth and steady
supply, we use the full wave rectifiers.
• A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier
that converts the complete cycle of
alternating current into pulsating DC.
• Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize only the
halfwave of the input AC cycle, full wave
rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower
efficiency of the half wave rectifier can be
overcome by the full wave rectifier.
 Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
• The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be
constructed in two ways.
• The first method uses a centre tapped
transformer and two diodes. This
arrangement is known as a centre tapped full
wave rectifier.
• The second method uses a standard
transformer with four diodes arranged as a
bridge. This is known as a bridge rectifier.
The circuit of the full wave rectifier consists of a step-down
transformer and two diodes that are connected and centre
tapped. The output voltage is obtained across the connected
load resistor.
 Working of Full Wave Rectifier
• The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier
is very high. The step-down transformer in the
rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC
into low voltage AC. The anode of the centre
tapped diodes is connected to the
transformer’s secondary winding and
connected to the load resistor. During the
positive half cycle of the alternating current,
the top half of the secondary winding
becomes positive while the second half of the
secondary winding becomes negative.
• During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward
biased as it is connected to the top of the
secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse
biased as it is connected to the bottom of the
secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will
conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will not
conduct acting as an open circuit
• During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is
reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward biased
because the top half of the secondary circuit
becomes negative and the bottom half of the
circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave
rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive
and negative half cycle.
 Bridge rectifier
• Among the rectifiers, the bridge rectifier is the
most efficient rectifier circuit.
• We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of
full-wave rectifier that uses four or more
diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to
efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a
direct (DC) current.
 Construction
The construction of a bridge
rectifier is shown in the figure
below. The bridge rectifier circuit
is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3,
D4, and a load resistor RL. The
four diodes are connected in a
closed-loop configuration to
efficiently convert the
alternating current (AC) into
Direct Current (DC). The main
advantage of this configuration is
the absence of the expensive
centre-tapped transformer.
Therefore, the size and cost are
reduced.
 Working
When an AC signal is
applied across the
bridge rectifier,
terminal A becomes
positive during the
positive half cycle while
terminal B becomes
negative. This results in
diodes D1 and
D3 becoming forward
biased while D2 and
D4 becoming reverse
biased.
 Working
During the negative half-
cycle, terminal B
becomes positive while
terminal A becomes
negative. This causes
diodes D2 and D4 to
become forward biased
and diode D1 and D3 to
be reverse biased. Thus,
a bridge rectifier allows
electric current during
both positive and
negative half cycles of
the input AC signal.
Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during
both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC
signal.
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Efficiency is higher than the • Circuit is complex compared

efficiency of a half-wave to a half-wave rectifier and
rectifier. However, same as centre-tapped full-wave
centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.
rectifier.
• DC output signal is • more diodes used more
smoother. power loss occurs.
• Electric current is allowed • voltage drop is higher in a
during both positive and bridge rectifier.
negative half cycles of the
input AC signal. Hence, the
output DC signal is almost
equal to the input AC signal.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A light emitting diode is a
diode that gives off visible
light (usually red, orange,
yellow, or green) when a
forward bias is applied.
LED is made
of semiconductor material
s like GaAs, GaASP, and
GaP. The operation of a
light emitting diode(LED) is
based on
electroluminescence,
which is the emission of
light from a semiconductor
because of the influence of
an electric field.
 Working
LED is nothing but a diode made
of semiconductors having a P-N
junction. LED is based on the
phenomenon of recombination of
electrons with holes. When LED is
forward biased, the electrons
from the N-region cross the P-N
junction and recombine with the
holes existing in P-region. For the
electrons to recombine with holes
existing in P-region, they must
give some of their energy. When
recombination occurs, the
recombining electrons release The operation of a light emitting
energy in the form of heat and diode(LED) is the phenomenon of
light. electroluminescence. The emission of
light from a semiconductor because of the
influence of an electric field is called
electroluminescence.
 IV Graph of LED
• IV graph of LED is a representation of the relationship between the current
flowing through the LED as a function of the voltage across it.
• The forward voltage of an LED is equal to the band gap. It increases in
ascending order from red to violet.
• For the visible spectrum energy gap of semiconductors is from 1.8 eV to 3
eV with Red before 1.8 eV and violet after 3 eV.
• It is not recommended to power LEDs in parallel as it is a particularly bad
idea when the colours are mixed. For example, if red, green, and blue LEDs
are connected in parallel on a 2.0V supply, it would result in
– Red – 44mA
– Green – 12mA
– Blue – 3mA
• Red ends up hogging the majority of the current
• The lowest forward voltage is seen in Infra-red LEDs
 Uses Types
• It finds usage in many • Miniature LEDs
areas because of its long-
• High-Power LEDs
lasting capability, low
power requirements, • Flash LED
swift response time, and • Bi and Tri-Colour
fast switching • Red Green Blue LEDs
capabilities. • Alphanumeric LED
• Used for TV back-lighting • Lighting LED
• Used in displays
• Used in Automotives
• LEDs used in the dimming
of lights
 Advantages of LEDs
• small-sized and can be assembled to form numeric and
alphabet displays.
• environmentally and economically friendly.
• rugged and withstand shocks and vibrations.
• operated in a wide range of temperatures.
• The switching time of LED (both on and off) is less than one,
very suitable for the dynamic operation of many arrays.
• Available in different colours like red, yellow, green, and blue.
• Need moderate power. Used where low dc power is available.
• They occupy a small area.
 Disadvantages of LEDs
• LEDs get damaged by overvoltage or overcurrent.
• wide optical bandwidth compared to LASER (≅
10nm).
• Their temperature depends on the radiant output
power and wavelength.
• Not suited for large-area displays, primarily
because of their high cost. For larger displays,
devices using gas-filled are used.
• Protecting against reverse bias. The LEDs have
low reverse voltage ratings.
 Applications of LEDs
• Seven Segment Display: Seven segment displays are the
best alternative to a dot matrix display and are easier to
display decimal numerals. We have seen this display in our
digital watches, meters, boards, etc. The small size of the
LED makes it the best fit for this display.
• LED used in TV Remote: TV remote controls work on the
principle of sending and receiving signals but use a type of
light called infrared (or IR for short). The remote control has
an LED light that flashes quickly to emit a message picked
up by the TV. The remote is the transmitter, and the TV is
the receiver.
• Picturephone: LEDs are used in image sensing circuits for
‘picturephones.’
• Computers: LEDs supply power to LASERs for entering
information into optical computer memories.
 Photodiode
• The photodiode is the p-n junction device This type of diode generally
absorbs the light energy. Then it converts that light energy to the
electrical energy for use. When photons – or light – of sufficient energy
fall on the p-n junction of the photodiode, they break and ionize the
covalent bonds of the immobile atoms. This generates new electron-
hole pairs. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect.
• The generated electrons are swept toward the n-type material
(because the depletion region of the n-type material is positively
charged). The holes are swept towards the p-type material (because
the depletion region of the p-type material is negatively charged). This
flow of charge leads to photocurrent or simply current.
• In other words, a photodiode senses light and produces current as
output. A photodiode is also called a photo sensor, photodetector or
light detector.
 Construction
• The photodiode has three major components
including the P+ region, P-n junction, and N-type
side. The P+ region is the positive electrode. This
element is located on the top of the diode. The P-
n junction is an omnidirectional layer between
the P+ and N- region. The N-type or negative
electrode is located at the bottom of the diode. It
reflects the light. It is important to remember
that photodiodes are light-sensitive devices
which is linear and have low resistance.
Photo diode
 Working of Photodiode
• The photodiode absorbs the light energy as the photon
hv.
• When the energy of the photon hv is higher than the
energy gap, the photodiode creates new electron-hole
pairs.
• The new electron-hole pairs are always generated in
the depletion zone of this diode.
• The newly sorted electrons are transferred to the n
side and holes travel to the p side. This movement
creates the condition to produce EMF and current flow.
• When the amount of photocurrent becomes equal to
the light intensity, it creates a condition of reverse bias.
V-I Characteristics of
Photodiode
The photodiode operates
in reverse bias mode.
Reverse voltages are
plotted in volts along the X
axis, and reverse currents
are plotted in
microamperes along the Y
axis. Reverse current is
independent of reverse
voltage. When there is no
light illumination, reverse
current is almost non-
existent. "Dark current" is
the smallest amount of
current present. When the
brightness of the light
increases, so does the
reverse current.
 Advantages Disadvantages
• Photodiodes are less resistant. • The temperature stability of
They are quick and have a high the photodiode is poor and
speed to operate.
their active area is too
• These photodiodes have a
long lifespan and are small.
considered the fastest • A usual photodiode with the
photodetector. PN junction always has a
• The spectral response of the high response time with less
photodiode is good and does
sensitivity.
not need high voltage to
operate.
• The photodiode has a high
quantum efficiency with less
noise.
 Applications of Photodiodes
• The photodiode can be used as the photodetector.
• These photodetectors works like as the photoconductors.
• In the different photomultiplier tubes we can find the
photodiodes.
• Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices.
• The photodiodes are the major component of the clock
radios, cameras, and street lights. Here photodiodes
work as the photoconductors.
• In science and industries, photodiodes are used for
measurement purposes which have enhanced and more
linear responses.
 ZENER Diode
• Discover the versatile functionality of Zener diodes,
which enable the flow of current in both forward and
reverse directions. As one of the most widely used
semiconductor diodes, Zener diodes play a crucial role
in electronic circuits. A Zener Diode, also referred to as
a breakdown diode, is a specially doped
semiconductor device engineered to function in the
reverse direction.
• When the voltage across a Zener diode’s terminals is
reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage (also known as
the knee voltage), the junction experiences a
breakdown, allowing current to flow in the opposite
direction. This phenomenon, known as the Zener
Effect, is a key characteristic of Zener diodes.
Zener diode as a Voltage regulator
 Working of Zener Diode
• A Zener diode functions similarly to a regular diode
when forward-biased.
• However, in reverse-biased mode, a small leakage
current flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage
increases and reaches the predetermined breakdown
voltage (Vz), current begins to flow through the diode.
• This current reaches a maximum level determined by
the series resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains
constant across a wide range of applied voltages.
• There are two types of breakdowns in a Zener
Diode: Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown.
• Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode
• Avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and Zener diodes when
subjected to high reverse voltage.
• When a significant reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free
electrons gain enough energy to accelerate at high velocities. These high-
velocity electrons collide with other atoms, causing the ejection of additional
electrons. This continuous collision process generates a large number of free
electrons, resulting in a rapid increase in electric current through the diode.
• In the case of a normal diode, this sudden surge in current could permanently
damage it.
• However, a Zener diode is specifically designed to withstand avalanche
breakdown and can handle the sudden current spike. Avalanche breakdown
typically occurs in Zener diodes with a Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

• Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

• When the reverse bias voltage applied to a Zener diode approaches its Zener
voltage, the electric field within the depletion region becomes strong enough to
attract and remove electrons from their valence band.
• These valence electrons, energized by the intense electric field, break free from
their parent atoms.
• This phenomenon takes place in the Zener breakdown region, where even a
slight increase in voltage leads to a rapid surge in electric current.
VI Characteristics of ZENER Diode
 Application of Zener Diode
• Zener diode as a voltage regulator: The zener
diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for
regulating voltage across small loads.
• Zener diode in over-voltage protection
• Zener diode in clipping circuits: