System Dynamics and Control

Modeling in the Frequency Domain

Unggul Wasiwitono

Mechanical Engineering Department

Faculty of Industrial Technology and Systems Engineering
 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Introduction

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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Learning Objectives

1 Find the Laplace transform of time functions and the inverse Laplace transform.
2 Find the transfer function from a differential equation and solve the differential equation using
the transfer function
3 Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electrical networks, mechanical systems
and electromechanical systems
4 Linearize a nonlinear system in order to find the transfer function

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Introduction

1 What is modeling?
1 Modeling is a process of abstraction of a real system.
2 A model portrays a conceptual framework to describe a system and can be viewed as an
abstraction (essence) of an actual system or a physical replica of a system or a situation.
2 An analytical model of the control system is needed for mathematical analysis and computer
simulation of the system. Understand system behavior (analysis).
3 A model of the system to be controlled (i.e., plant, process) may be used to develop the
performance specifications, based on which a controller is developed for the system. Design
a controller (synthesis).
4 Developing the model ≈ 80%–90% of the effort in designing a controller.

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Introduction

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Introduction

Mathematical models from schematics of physical systems.

1 Transfer functions in the frequency domain
2 State equations in the time domain
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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Laplace Transform Review

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Laplace in Frequency Domain

Laplace Transforms
1 Standard notation in dynamics and control (shorthand notation)
2 Converts mathematics to algebraic operations
3 Advantageous for block diagram analysis

Laplace transforms can be used in process control for:

1 Solution of differential equations (linear)
2 Analysis of linear control systems (frequency response)
3 Prediction of transient response for different inputs
4 Control system design
5 Stability analysis

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Definition

The Laplace transform of a function f (t) is defined as

Z ∞
F (s) = L [f (t)] = f (t) e−st dt (1)
−0

where
F (s) is the symbol for the Laplace transform,
L is the Laplace transform operator, and
f (t) is some function of time, t.

Note
The L operator transforms a time domain √ function f (t) into an s domain function, F (s).
s is a complex variable: s = a + bj; j = −1

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Inverse Laplace Transform

By definition, the inverse Laplace transform operator, L −1 , converts an s-domain

function back to the corresponding time domain function:
Z σ+j∞
1
L −1
[F (s)] = F (s) est ds = f (t) u (t) (2)
2π σ−j∞

Both L and L −1 are linear operator. Thus

L [ax (t) + by (t)] = aL [x (t)] + bL [y (t)] = aX (s) + bY (s)

Similarly
L −1 [aX (s) + bY (s)] = ax (t) + by (t)

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Laplace Transform Table

Integration can be sometimes be tedious. Alway look at the Table and compare to
what we have.

No f (t) F (s) No f (t) F (s)

n −at n!
1 δ (t) 1 8 t e u (t) (s+a)n+1
1 2ωs
2 u (t) s 9 t sin ωtu (t) (s2 +ω 2 )2
1 s2 −ω 2
3 tu (t) s2 10 t cos ωtu (t) (s2 +ω 2 )2
n! s sin(τ )+ω cos(τ )
4 tn u (t) sn+1 11 sin (ωt + τ ) u (t) s2 +ω 2
−at 1 s cos(τ )−ω sin(τ )
5 e u (t) s+a 12 cos (ωt + τ ) u (t) s2 +ω 2
6 sin ωtu (t) ω
s2 +ω 2 13 e−at sin (ωt) u (t) ω
(s+a)2 +ω 2
7 cos ωtu (t) s
s2 +ω 2 14 e−at cos (ωt) u (t) s+a
(s+a)2 +ω 2

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Example

Laplace Transform of a Time Function

Problem: Find the Laplace trnsform of f (t) = Ae−at u (t)

Solution: Since the time function does not contain an impulse function, we can replace
the lower limit with 0. Hence,
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
−st −at −st
F (s) = f (t) e dt = Ae e dt = A e−(s+a)t dt
0 0 0
∞
A −(s+a)t A
=− e =
s+a t=0 s+a

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 Laplace Transform Theorem
No Theorem Name
R∞
1 L [f (t)] = F (s) = 0− f (t) e−st dt Definition
2 L [kf (t)] = kF (s) Linearity theorem
3 L [f1 (t) + f2 (t)] = F1 (s) + F2 (s) Linearity theorem
L e−at f (t)
 
4 = F (s + a) Frequency shift theorem
5 L [f (t − T )] = e−sT F (s) Time shift theorem
L [f (at)] 1 s


6 = a
F a
Scaling theorem
h i
7 L dfdt
= sF (s) − f (0−) Differentiation theorem
h 2 i
8 L ddt2f = s2 F (s) − sf (0−) − f 0 (0−) Differentiation theorem
h n i n
9 L ddtnf = sn F (s) − Σ sn−k f k−1 (0−) Differentiation theorem
k=1
hR i
t F (s)
10 L 0− f (τ ) dτ = s
Integration theorem

11 f (∞) = lim sF (s) Final value theorem

s→0
12 f (0+) = lim sF (s)
s→∞
Initial value theorem
 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Partial-Fraction Expansion
Convert the function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the Laplace transform
of each term.

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Partial-Fraction Expansion
Convert the function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the Laplace transform
of each term.

s3 + 2s2 + 6s + 7 2
F (s) = ⇒ F (s) = s + 1 +
s2 + s + 5 s2 +s+5
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Partial-Fraction Expansion
Case 1. Roots of the Denominator of F (s) Are Real and Distinct
2
F (s) = (3)
(s + 1) (s + 2)
Write the partial-fraction expansion as a sum of terms where each factor of the original
denominator forms the denominator of each term, and constants, called residues, form
the numerators.
2 K1 K2
F (s) = = + (4)
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 2)
To find K1 , we first multiply Eq. (4) by (s + 1), which isolates K1 . Thus,

2 (s + 1) K2
= K1 + (5)
(s + 2) (s + 2)

Letting s approach −1 eliminates the last term and yields K1 = 2

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Partial-Fraction Expansion
Similarly, K2 can be found by multiplying Eq. (4) by (s + 1) and then letting s approach
−2; hence, K2 = −2. Hence, f (t) is the sum of the inverse Laplace transform of each
term, or
f (t) = 2e−t − 2e−2t u (t)


(6)
In general, then, given an F (s) whose denominator has real and distinct roots, a
partialfraction expansion,

N (s) N (s)
F (s) = =
D (s) (s + p1 ) (s + p2 ) · · · (s + pm ) · · · (s + pn )
K1 K2 Km Kn (7)
= + + ··· + + ··· +
(s + p1 ) (s + p2 ) (s + pm ) (s + pn )

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Partial-Fraction Expansion
Similarly, K2 can be found by multiplying Eq. (4) by (s + 1) and then letting s approach
−2; hence, K2 = −2. Hence, f (t) is the sum of the inverse Laplace transform of each
term, or
f (t) = 2e−t − 2e−2t u (t)


(6)
In general, then, given an F (s) whose denominator has real and distinct roots, a
partialfraction expansion,

N (s) N (s)
F (s) = =
D (s) (s + p1 ) (s + p2 ) · · · (s + pm ) · · · (s + pn )
K1 K2 Km Kn (7)
= + + ··· + + ··· +
(s + p1 ) (s + p2 ) (s + pm ) (s + pn )

Please read Example 2.3

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Partial-Fraction Expansion
Case 2. Roots of the Denominator of F (s) Are Real and Repeated
2
F (s) = 2 (8)
(s + 1) (s + 2)
In this case, the denominator root at −2 is a multiple root of multiplicity 2.
write the partial-fraction expansion as
2 K1 K2 K3
F (s) = 2 = + 2 + (9)
(s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 2)

then K1 = 2 which can be found as previously described. K2 can be isolated by

2
multiplying Eq. (9) by (s + 2)
2 2 K1
= (s + 2) + K2 + (s + 2) K3 (10)
s+1 (s + 1)
Letting s approach −2, K2 = −2.
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Partial-Fraction Expansion

To find K3 , we differentiate Eq. (10) with respect to s

−1 (s + 2) s
2 = 2 K1 + K3
(s + 1) (s + 1)

K3 is isolated and can be found if we let s approach −2. Hence, K3 = −2.

Hence, f (t) is the sum of the inverse Laplace transform of each term, or

f (t) = 2e−t − 2te−2t − 2e−2t

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

In general, given an F (s) whose denominator has real and repeated roots, a partial
fraction expansion,

N (s) N (s)
F (s) = = r
D (s) (s + p1 ) (s + p2 ) · · · (s + pn )
K1 K2 Kr Kr+1 Kn (11)
= r + r−1 + · · · + (s + p ) + (s + p ) + · · · + (s + p )
(s + p1 ) (s + p1 ) 1 2 n

can be made if the order of N (s) is less than the order of D(s) and the repeated roots
are of multiplicity r at −p1 .

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

To find K1 through Kr for the roots of multiplicity greater than unity, first multiply Eq. (11)
r
by (s + p1 ) getting F1 (s), which is
r
F1 (s) = (s + p1 ) F (s)
r
(s + p1 ) N (s)
= r
(s + p1 ) (s + p2 ) · · · (s + pn )
2 r−1
= K1 + (s + p1 ) K2 + (s + p1 ) K3 + · · · + (s + p1 ) Kr (12)
r r
Kr+1 (s + p1 ) Kn (s + p1 )
+ + ··· + (13)
(s + p2 ) (s + pn )

Immediately, we can solve for K1 if we let s approach −p1 .

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

1 We can solve for K2 if we differentiate Eq. (12) with respect to s and then let s approach −p1 .
2 Subsequent differentiation will allow us to find K3 through Kr .
3 The general expression for K1 through Kr for the multiple roots is

1 di−1 F1 (s)
Ki = i = 1, 2, · · · , r 0! = 1 (14)
(i − 1)! dsi−1 s→−p1

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Partial-Fraction Expansion
Case 3. Roots of the Denominator of F (s) Are Complex or Imaginary
3
F (s) = (15)
s (s2 + 2s + 5)
This function can be expanded in the following form:
3 K1 K2 s + K3
= + 2 (16)
s (s2 + 2s + 5) s s + 2s + 5
K1 is found in the usual way as case 1 to be 53 . K2 and K3 can be
found by first
multiplying (16) by the lowest common denominator, s s2 + 2s + 5 , and clearing the
fractions.
After simplification with K1 = 35 , we obtain
   
3 2 6
3 = K2 + s + K3 + s+3
5 5

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Partial-Fraction Expansion

Hence K2 = − 53 and K3 = − 65 .
1
3 2 3 s+2
F (s) = 2
= − 2
(17)
s (s + 2s + 5) s 5 s + 2s + 5
!
3 (s + 1) + 12 2
1 1 1



2 2 3 (s + 1) 2 2
F (s) = − = − + (18)
s 5 (s + 1)2 + 22 s 5 (s + 1) + 22
2
(s + 1) + 22
2

3 3 −t 1
f (t) = − e (cos 2t + sin 2t) (19)
5 5 2

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Why?
1 Solving ODEs using time-domain techniques can be very challenging
2 Laplace transforms and Partial Fraction Expantion offer an eassy way to solve ODEs

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The Transfer Function

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What are Transfer Function

r(t) c(t)

Transfer Function
a mathematical representation to describe relationship between inputs and outputs
of the physics of a system, i.e., of the differential equations that govern the motion of
bodies.

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The Transfer Function

a general nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential equation,

dn c (t) dn−1 c (t) dm r (t) dm−1 r (t)

an n
+ an−1 n−1
+ · · · + a0 c (t) = bm m
+ bm−1 + · · · + b0 r (t) (20)
dt dt dt dtm−1
where c (t) is the output, r (t) is the input, and the ai ’s, bi ’s and the form of the differential
equation represent the system.
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides,

an sn C (s) + an−1 sn−1 C (s) + · · · + a0 C (s) + initial condition terms involving c (t)
= bm sm R (s) + bm−1 sm−1 R (s) + · · · + b0 R (s) + initial condition terms involving r (t)
(21)

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The Transfer Function

assume that all initial conditions are zero

an sn C (s) + an−1 sn−1 C (s) + · · · + a0 C (s) = bm sm R (s) + bm−1 sm−1 R (s) + · · · + b0 R (s) (22)

Now form the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the input transform, R(s):

C (s) bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 + · · · + b0

= G (s) = (23)
R (s) an sn + an−1 sn−1 + · · · + a0

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The Transfer Function

assume that all initial conditions are zero

an sn C (s) + an−1 sn−1 C (s) + · · · + a0 C (s) = bm sm R (s) + bm−1 sm−1 R (s) + · · · + b0 R (s) (22)

Now form the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the input transform, R(s):

C (s) bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 + · · · + b0

= G (s) = (23)
R (s) an sn + an−1 sn−1 + · · · + a0

R(s) bm sm +bm−1 sm−1 +···+b0

C(s)
an sn +an−1 sn−1 +···+a0

Block diagram of a transfer function

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The Transfer Function

assume that all initial conditions are zero

an sn C (s) + an−1 sn−1 C (s) + · · · + a0 C (s) = bm sm R (s) + bm−1 sm−1 R (s) + · · · + b0 R (s) (22)

Now form the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the input transform, R(s):

C (s) bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 + · · · + b0

= G (s) = (23)
R (s) an sn + an−1 sn−1 + · · · + a0

R(s) bm sm +bm−1 sm−1 +···+b0

C(s) Please read
an sn +an−1 sn−1 +···+a0
Example 2.4 and 2.5
Block diagram of a transfer function

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Electrical Network Transfer Functions

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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Electrical Network Transfer Functions

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Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis

Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming

zero initial conditions,

1 t
Z
di (t)
L + Ri (t) + i (τ ) dτ = v (t) (24)
dt C 0
Changing variables from current to charge

d2 q (t) dq (t) 1
L 2
+R + q (t) = v (t) (25)
dt dt C
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From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor
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Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis

Hence
d2 vC (t) dvC (t)
LC + RC + vC (t) = v (t) (27)
dt2 dt
Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial
conditions

LCs2 + RCs + 1 VC (s) = V (s)

(28)

Solving for the transfer function

1
VC (s) LC
= 2 R 1
(29)
V (s) s + L s + LC

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Mechanical System Transfer Functions

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Mechanical System Transfer Functions

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Mechanical System Transfer Functions

Taking the Laplace transform of the force-displacement column in Table 2.4, we obtain
for the spring,
F (s) = KX (s) (30)
for the viscous damper,
F (s) = fv sX (s) (31)
and for the mass,
F (s) = M s2 X (s) (32)
If we define impedance for mechanical components as

F (s)
ZM (s) = (33)
X (s)

and apply the definition to (30) through(32) we arrive at the impedances of each
component

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Mechanical System Transfer Functions

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Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears

as the gears turn, the distance traveled along each gear’s circumference is the same.

r1 θ1 = r2 θ2 (34)

or
θ2 r1 N1
= =
θ1 r2 N2

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Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears

The relationship between the input torque, T1 , and the delivered torque, T2

T1 θ1 = T2 θ2 (35)

T2 θ1 N2
= =
T1 θ2 N1

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Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears

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Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears

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Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

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Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

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Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

1 A magnetic field is developed by stationary permanent magnets or a stationary

electromagnet called the fixed field.
2 A rotating circuit called the armature, through which current ia (t) flows, passes through this
magnetic field at right angles and feels a force,

F = Blia (t) (36)

where B is the magnetic field strength and l is the length of the conductor.
3 A conductor moving at right angles to a magnetic field generates a voltage at the terminals
of the conductor equal to
e = Blv (37)
where e is the voltage and v is the velocity of the conductor normal to the magnetic field.

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Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

1 Since the current-carrying armature is rotating in a magnetic field, its voltage is proportional
to speed. Thus,
dθm (t)
vb (t) = Kb (38)
dt
where vb (t) is the back electromotive force (back emf); Kb is a constant of proportionality
called the back emf constant; and dθm (t) /dt = ωm (t) is the angular velocity of the motor.
2 Taking the Laplace transform, we get

Vb (s) = Kb sθm (s) (39)

3 The relationship between the armature current, ia (t), the applied armature voltage, ea (t),
and the back emf, vb (t), is found by writing a loop equation around the Laplace transformed
armature circuit
Ra Ia (s) + La sIa (s) + Vb (s) = Ea (s) (40)

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Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the armature current; thus,

Tm (s) = Kt Ia (s) (41)

where Tm is the torque developed by the motor, and Kt is a constant of proportionality,

called the motor torque constant, which depends on the motor and magnetic field
characteristics.
To find the transfer function of the motor, we first substitute (39) and (41) into (40)

(Ra + La s) Tm (s)
+ Kb sθm (s) = Ea (s) (42)
Kt

Now we must find Tm (s) in terms of θm (s) if we are to separate the input and output
variables and obtain the transfer function θEma (s)
(s)

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Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

A typical equivalent mechanical loading on a motor

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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

A typical equivalent mechanical loading on a motor

Tm (s) = Jm s2 + Dm s θm (s)


(43)
Substituting (43) into (??) yields


(Ra + La s) Jm s2 + Dm s θm (s)
+ Kb sθm (s) = Ea (s) (44)
Kt
Assuming La ≪ Ra  
Ra
(Jm s + Dm ) + Kb sθm (s) = Ea (s) (45)
Kt

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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

θm (s)
After simplification, the desired transfer function, Ea (s)

Kt
θm (s)
= h Ra Jm i (46)
Ea (s) s s+ 1
Dm + Kt Kb
Jm Ra

or
θm (s) K
= (47)
Ea (s) s [s + α]

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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

 
Kt
θm (s) Ra J m
= h  i
Ea (s) s s+ 1
Dm + Kt Kb
Jm Ra
 

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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

 
Kt
θm (s) Ra J m
= h  i
Ea (s) s s+ 1
Dm + Kt Kb
Jm Ra
 
 2  2
N1 N1
Jm = Ja + JL ; Dm = Da + DL (48)
N2 N2

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 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

The electrical constants of the motor’s transfer function

Kt Tstall
=
Ra ea
and
ea
Kb =
ωno−load

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Question ?
 Introduction Laplace Transform Review The Transfer Function Electrical Network Transfer Functions Mechanical System Transfer Functions Electromechanical System Tra

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