Bachelor’s in Electrical Engineering

Transmission and Distribution Design

For Bachelor’s Students- Fourth Year/ First Part

By: Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 1
 Chapter-2
Transmission voltage level & number of circuit
selection [4 hours]

Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

Institute of Engineering,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
 Transmission voltage level & number of circuit selection [4 hours]
• Effect of voltage level in power and energy loss, conductor and insulator economy
• Technical aspects of alternating current overhead lines: power and VAR transmission capability as
functions of line length, line impedance and voltage level,
• choice of voltage level for transmission for single and multiple circuit

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 3
 • It is efficient to transmit power at higher voltage level.
• It is economical to transmit power at higher voltage level.
• Power loss
• Voltage drop
• Efficiency
• Cost reduction due to lesser conductor material

Effect of voltage level in

>>Power And Energy Loss,
>>Conductor And Insulator Economy

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 Effect of high voltage on Volume of conductor
Consider the transmission of electrical power by a three-phase line.
Let,
P = Power transmitted in watts,
V = Line voltage in volts,
cos φ = Power factor of the load,
l = Length of the line in meters,
R = Resistance per conductor in ohms,
ρ = Resistivity of conductor material,
a = Area of X-section of conductor,
𝑃
Load Current is obtained by, 𝐼=
3 × 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅

𝜌𝑙
Resistance is given by, 𝑅=
𝑎

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 Effect of high voltage on Volume of conductor

Total Copper Loss is given by, 𝑊 = 3 × 𝐼2 × 𝑅

2
𝑃 𝜌𝑙
𝑊 =3× ×
3 × 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑎
𝑃2 𝜌𝑙
𝑊= 2 2
×
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝑎

𝑃2 𝜌𝑙
𝑎=
𝑊 × 𝑉 2 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅
Area of Cross-section of the conductor is given by, 𝑃2 𝜌𝑙
𝑎=
𝑊 × 𝑉 2 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅

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 Effect of high voltage on Volume of conductor

The Volume of Copper is given by,

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ … … … … … … … … … 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 3 × 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ … … … … … … … . 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑃2 𝜌𝑙2
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑊 × 𝑉 2 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅
• It can be seen from the equation that the volume of copper required is inversely proportional to
the square of the transmission voltage and the power factor, for given P, W, 𝜌 and 𝑙.
– Thus greater is the transmission voltage level, lesser is the volume of copper required i.e. the weight of
copper used gets reduced.
– The conductor material required is less, for higher transmission voltage.

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 Effect of high voltage on Voltage Drop of conductor
• The voltage drop in a transmission line is given by:

𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 𝐼 × = 𝐼 × = 𝜌𝑙𝐽
𝑎 𝐼
𝐽
𝜌𝑙𝐽
%𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = × 100%
𝑉

• It can be noticed from the above expression that voltage drop in the transmission system is directly
proportional to the amount of current.
• When the voltage is increased for transmission by step up transformer, the current in the
transmission system is reduced significantly.
– Voltage drop reduces due to smaller amount of current.
– Voltage regulation improves for the transmission system.

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 8
 Effect of high voltage on Losses of conductor

• The Power loss due to heat dissipation is given by:

2
2
𝑃
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 = ×𝑅
3 × 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅

• If we increase the voltage of transmission system by step up transformer, the current reduces
resulting in lesser power loss in the transmission system.
– Power loss is directly proportional to the square of the current flowing in the transmission system.
– Lesser the current, lesser will be the power loss in the transmission system and vice versa.

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 9
 Effect of high voltage on Line Efficiency
• The Power input to the line can be written as,
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑃2 𝜌𝑙
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 2 2
×
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝑎
• Let, J =Current Density of the conductor in A/m2, then,
𝐼 𝐼
𝐽= →𝑎=
𝑎 𝐽
𝑃2 𝜌𝑙
∴ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 + 2 ×
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝐼
2
𝐽
𝑃2 𝜌𝑙𝐽
=𝑃+ 2 2
×
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝐼

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 Effect of high voltage on Line Efficiency

𝑃2 𝜌𝑙𝐽
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 + 2 2
×
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝐼
𝑃2 𝜌𝑙𝐽
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 + 2 ×
2
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝑃
3 × 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
𝑃2 𝜌𝑙𝐽
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 + 2 2
× × 3 × 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ 𝑃
𝑃× 3×𝜌×𝑙×𝐽
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 +
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
3×𝜌×𝑙×𝐽
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 1 +
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
12/6/2022 MK/TnD 11
 Effect of high voltage on Line Efficiency

3×𝜌×𝑙×𝐽
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 1 +
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
• Transmission Line Efficiency is, 𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛

−1
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 1 3×𝜌×𝑙×𝐽
𝜂= = = 1+
𝑃𝑖𝑛 3×𝜌×𝑙×𝐽 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
1+
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
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 Effect of high voltage on Line Efficiency

−1
3×𝜌×𝑙×𝐽
𝜂 = 1+
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅

Expanding the previous expression through Binomial Theorem Expansion and neglecting
the higher terms, we get:
3×𝜌×𝑙×𝐽
𝜂 ≈1−
𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
• As J, ρ and L are constants, transmission efficiency increases when the line voltage
is increased.
• Similarly, Efficiency is also increased when power factor is increased.

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 Conductor cost per unit length

• Parameters that affect the (conductor + insulator) cost per unit length of the
transmission lines are:
– Power to be transmitted
– length of line
– Voltage level
– Number of circuit

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 Effect of high voltage on Cost of conductor per unit length
𝑃
𝑁𝑐
Load Current is obtained by, 𝐼=
3 × 𝑉 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
𝑃 𝜌𝑙
Total Power Loss is given by, 𝑃𝐿 = 3 × 𝑁𝑐 × 𝐼 2 × 𝑅 = 3 × 𝑁𝑐 × ( 2
) ×
3×𝑁𝑐 ×𝑉×𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 𝐴

𝑃𝐿 𝑃 𝜌𝑙
Percentage Power Loss is given by, %𝑃𝐿 = = 3 × 𝑁𝑐 × 2 ×
𝑃 3×𝑁𝑐 ×𝑉×𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 𝐴

𝑃×𝑙 𝜌
= ×
𝑉 2 ×𝑁𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 2 ×𝐴

𝑃×𝑙 𝜌 𝑲𝟏 ×𝑷×𝒍
Area of conductor is given by, A= × => A=
𝑉 2 ×𝑁𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 2 ×%𝑃 𝑽𝟐 ×𝑵𝒄

Cost of conductor = rate * weight of conductor = rate * density * Area* length

i.e. cost of conductor/ length α Area
𝐾1 ×𝑃×𝑙
Or, cost of conductor/ length α
𝑉 2 ×𝑁𝑐

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 15
 Effect of high voltage on Cost of conductor per unit length

𝑲𝟏 ×𝑷×𝒍
Or, cost of conductor/ length α
𝑽𝟐 ×𝑵𝒄

At high voltage, Volume Reduces and hence Cost too.

• Current on the secondary of step –up transformer is reduced with
the higher voltage level.
• Smaller conductor can carry smaller current.
• Cost of smaller cross- sectional area conductor is lower.
• Can carry more power over longer distance for the same cost.

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 Cost of conductor per unit length

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 Effect of high voltage on Power Transfer Capability

Power transmitted over a transmission line is given by,

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑟
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑋

If Vs=Vr,
then power transmitted is proportional to square of voltage
which increases power handling capacity of the line.

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 Advantages of High Voltage on Transmission Line

At high voltage transmission,

1. load Current reduces.
𝑃
𝐼=
3𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
2. losses in the transmission system reduces.
3. volume of conductor material required reduces.
4. voltage drop in the transmission system reduces, thus Voltage Regulation is improved.
5. efficiency of the transmission system is improved.
6. power transfer capability in the transmission system increases.

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 Other Advantages of High Voltage on Transmission Line

7. The number of circuits and the land requirement reduces as transmission voltage
increases.
8. The total line cost per MW per km decreases considerably with the increase in line
voltage.
9. The operation with HV A.C. voltage is simple and can be adopted easily and naturally to
the synchronously operating a.c. systems.
10.The equipment used in HV A.C. system are simple and reliable without need of high
technology (no use of power electronics devices)
11.The lines can be easily tapped and extended with simple control of power flow in the
network.

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 Disadvantages of High Voltage on Transmission Line
• Corona Loss and Radio Interference
– corona loss is greatly influenced by choice of transmission voltage, increases with bad weather, interference in
radio and TV which causes disturbance.
• Line Supports
– Required to protect the transmission line during storms and cyclones, to make it wind resistant,
– extra amount of metal is required in the tower which may increase the cost.
• Erection Difficulties
– It requires high standard of workmanship. The supporting structures are to be efficiently transported.
• Insulation Needs
– Higher the transmission voltage, higher is the insulation required, otherwise causes problems in connection with conductor
supports and clearance between the conductors in order to avoid electrical discharge.
– higher insulation results in the increase in the cost of towers.
• The cost of transformers, switchgear equipment and protective equipment increases with increase
in transmission line voltage.
• The HV lines generate electrostatic effects which are harmful to human beings and animals.
12/6/2022 MK/TnD 21
 Economical Voltage of Transmission Line
Definition
‘The transmission
voltage for which the
cost of conductors,
cost of insulators,
transformers,
switchgear and other
terminal apparatus is
minimum is called
economical
transmission
voltage”.

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 Steps to Economical Voltage of Transmission Line

• Power (P) to be transmitted, generation voltage (V) and

length (L) of transmission line are assumed to be known.
• Then Choose a standard transmission voltage and find all
the costs of transformers, switchgear equipment, supporting
towers, and conductor.
• Similar calculations are made for other transmission
voltages.
• Then, a curve is drawn for total cost of transmission against
voltage as shown in Figure.
• The lowest point (Z) on the curve gives the economical
transmission voltage.
• Thus, in the present case, OX is the optimum transmission
voltage.

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 Empirical Formula: Economical Voltage of Transmission Line

• Above mentioned method for finding the economical transmission voltage is rarely used in
practice as different costs associated in it cannot be determined with a fair degree of accuracy.
• Instead an empirical formula is used for finding the economical voltage.
• According to American Practice, Economical Voltage between line in three phase system is given
by,
• Most economical Voltage (𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜):
– Voltage where sum of conductor cost and insulation cost is minimum

• The economical transmission voltage depends on

– P = power in MW
– length (or distance) of transmission line and
– 𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km
– power to be transmitted.
– Nc = number of circuits

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 24
 Thumb Rule

• A rough basis of determining the

most economical transmission
voltage is to use 650 volt per km of
transmission line.

• For example,
– if transmission line is 100 km,
– then the most economical transmission
voltage will be 100 × 650 ≅ 66,000 V
or 66 kV.

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 25
 Practical Voltages for Transmission and Distribution

1. For Generation: 6.6 kV, 11 kV, 22 kV or 33 kV

2. For Primary Transmission: 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV up to 400 kV
3. For Secondary Transmission: 11 kV, 22 kV or 33 kV
4. For Primary Distribution: 6.6 kV or 11 kV
5. For Secondary Distribution: 230 V and 400 V

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 26
 Technical aspects of alternating current overhead lines

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = Real power transfer limit through line for transient stability
𝛿𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = Power angle transient stability limit
𝛿𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 30° 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥, Should be kept minimum as possible
x = inductance per unit length
Series compensation needed for
long lines where 𝑥 × 𝑙 is high.

GMD dependent on spacing decided by voltage.

GMR dependent on size of conductor decided by current
𝐺𝑀𝐷 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 400 𝑡𝑜 1200
𝐺𝑀𝑅 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 0.6 𝑡𝑜 0.7
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 1𝑚𝐻/𝑘m

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 Power and VAR transmission capability as functions of line length,
line impedance and voltage level

• For transmission line of fixed length

power transfer limit increases for
higher voltage level

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 Power Transfer Capability

What is the capacity of the transmission

line or how much power it can carry.

𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒓
𝑷= 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹
𝑿𝒔
The power that a transmission line
can carry are based:
• Thermal Limit
• Voltage Drop Limit
• Stability Limit
12/6/2022 MK/TnD 29
 Power Transfer Capability: Thermal Limit

• Due to the current flow, heat is generated in the line and the line length changes
which gives rise to more sag. Sometimes leading to permanent sagging
• Sagging reduces the minimum clearance of the line to ground which may
violate the standard set by the local authority.
• Also if the load is very high the conductor may be damaged due to excessive
heat.
• All transmission lines have thermal limits, but only short lines can approach
this limit.
– Voltage drop and stability limits situation usually do not arise in long lines.
– Lines less than 80 km length falls in this category.

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 Power Transfer Capability: Voltage Limit

• For medium length line, the loading is mainly limited by allowable voltage
drop (usually between 5 to 10 % as set in grid standard).
– the voltage drop limit before reaching thermal limit.
– By reactive compensation the voltage drop limit can be increased.
• For medium length line the steady state stability limit situation usually does
not arise due to smaller length.
• Lines exceeding 80 km and less than 250 km long belong to this category.

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 Power Transfer Capability: Stability Limit
• For long line (above 250 km), effort is made to operate the
line with Surge Impedance Loading (SIL).
– SIL is defined as the maximum load (at unity power factor) that can be
delivered by the transmission line when the loads terminate with the
value equal to surge impedance (Zc) of line. Unit is MW.

• For long lines the voltage profile may be made more or less
flat with SIL loading.
– If the loading of line exceeds above SIL then the voltage at receiving
end is less than sending end.
– If the loading of the line is less than SIL then the voltage at receiving
end is more than sending end. This phenomenon is called Ferranti
effect.

• For very lightly loaded or open long lines the voltage at

receiving end may become very high.
– To avoid this situation Reactors are used at receiving end.

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 Line Loadability Curve

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒, • System planners usually use line loadability

𝐿 curve for deciding loading capability of the line.
𝑍𝑐 =
𝑐 • The relationship between SIL and length in km
shown in Fig is almost same for all voltage levels.

Value of Zc
Single Circuit 400
Overhead line
Double Circuit 200
Underground 80

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 Multiplying Factor

𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑀𝐹 =
𝑆𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐿2
𝑆𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍𝑐 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐢𝐧

𝑃𝑀 = 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 × 𝑆𝐼𝐿 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑃𝑀 = 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 34
 Show that the 𝑴𝑭𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 only depends on the length of transmission line and
its value decreases on increasing the length.

12/7/2022 MK/TnD 35
 Increase Power Transmission Capability

𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒓
𝑷= 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹
𝑿𝒔
• power angle δ may increase up to 90 degrees.
• Increasing slightly further, the line becomes unstable and lose synchronism.
– It is a good practice to operate the lines with sending and receiving ends phase difference angle
(power angle) less than 30 degrees.
– Doing so, if in emergency load generation disbalance in adjacent areas occurs this line can take
more load by increasing this power angle, so avoiding instability.
– So operating below 30 degrees we keep more than 60 degree angle margin.

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 36
 Increase Power Transmission Capability
𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒓
𝑷= 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹
𝑿𝒔
• if X is made smaller and smaller for any fixed small δ ( small sin δ imply small δ) then
more power can be transmitted.
– This small reactance which cannot be made arbitrarily small by line design, definitely limit the
power transmission in line.
• This loading limit for transmission line, stability limit is quite less than thermal limit.
– Stability limit must be checked more importantly in long transmission lines.
• Effort is made by power companies to push the limit towards thermal limit by employing
reactive compensation so reducing effective series X further.

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 37
Selection of Voltage level and Number of Circuits: Meeting Technical
Criteria
1. Given: P, Lt
2. Compute the most economical voltage for Nc = 1 and Nc = 2.
3. Choose the nearest standard voltage above/ below.
4. Check transient capability requirements
1. Compute MFlimit from Capability Curve.
2. Compute MF
3. Compute SIL
5. Criteria for stable system
1. for same standard voltage level: MF≤MFlimit
Option 1: One of them meet the criteria → Choose that number of circuit
Option 2: Both meet the criteria → Choose single circuit
Option 3: None meet the criteria → Go for higher voltage
2. Criteria for stable system for different standard voltage level : MF≤MFlimit
Option 1: Both of them meet the criteria → Evaluate power margin PM
→ Select lower power margin
→ Double circuit since it is more reliable and stable
12/6/2022 MK/TnD 38
 Numerical
Choose the most suitable standard voltage and
number of circuit 150MW power over distance
of 300km.

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 39
12/6/2022 MK/TnD 40
Find the suitable voltage level and the number of circuits for transmitting power (P) = 200 MW
over distance (D)=100km.

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 41
12/6/2022 MK/TnD 42
12/6/2022 MK/TnD 43
Components of Transmission Line

12/6/2022 MK/TnD 44
 Single and Double Circuit

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 Single and Double Circuit

12/7/2022 MK/TnD 46
 Single and Double Circuit

Single Circuit Double Circuit

Its structure is lighter in weight and requires less strong Its structure is heavier in weight and of more height. it
foundation because it is subjected to low wind pressure requires relatively stronger foundation. It is subjected to
on conductors and structure itself. more wind Pressure.
It needs much lower support for equal conductor It needs taller structure but less way leave for equal
clearance to earth but it requires more way leave for number of circuits.
same number of circuits.
Two earth wires are required for single circuit as theseOnly one earth wire is required for two circuits and more
cannot be disposed at the top. protection against lightning is had due to its disposition at the
top.
Danger of flashover is most unlikely and repairs can be There is always danger from the other live circuit.
carried out without danger to workmen from other
circuits.
Reliability regarding continuity of supply is less. Reliability regarding continuity of supply is more.

12/7/2022 MK/TnD 47
 Single and Double Circuit

Single Circuit Double Circuit

Reliability regarding continuity of supply is less. Reliability regarding continuity of supply is more.
It is more expensive for two circuits than the double It is most economical and cheaper.
circuit design.
Greater spacing of conductors is required resulting in Lesser spacing of conductors is required, hence the
greater inductive reactance. inductive reactance is less.
The phase performance along the line is unbalanced as It gives better approach to the triangular arrangement,
the central conductor passes at the top of the support, hence the phase performance will be more balanced.
which is an obvious drawback.
As spacing of conductors is high the reactance is high. As spacing of conductors is less, the reactance is low.
This type of arrangement is less dangerous during repair This type of arrangement is comparatively dangerous.
work.
• Use Double Circuits
– To improve transient stability
– To solve insulation problem
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 Tutorial
1. Select most economical and technically adequate voltage level and number of circuits for a
transmission line to transmit 300MW of power over distance of 200km.

2. Using the data given in appendix carryout the following initial transmission line design steps to
transmit a power of 165 MW at a distance of 100 Km.
i. Suggest the most economical and technically adequate suitable standard voltage level and
number of circuits.

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 Tutorial
3. A transmission line is to be designed for interconnecting a generation of 250MW power
to power system grid. The scenario of generating site and vicinity of grid is depicted in the
figure below. Suppose you are appointed as an electrical engineer to design the voltage
level and number of circuit for above power transmission, what would be your selection
among the options? Justify your selection.

4. “The X/R ratio is high for

transmission line while low for
distribution lines”. Justify.

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