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Plant Pathology in the 21st Century

Maria Lodovica Gullino

James P. Stack
Jacqueline Fletcher
John D. Mumford Editors

Practical Tools
for Plant and Food
Biosecurity
Results from a European Network
of Excellence
Plant Pathology in the 21st Century
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8169
Maria Lodovica Gullino • James P. Stack
Jacqueline Fletcher • John D. Mumford
Editors

Practical Tools for Plant

and Food Biosecurity
Results from a European Network
of Excellence

Volume 8
Editors
Maria Lodovica Gullino James P. Stack
Università degli Studi di Torino Department of Plant Pathology
AGROINNOVA Kansas State University
Grugliasco (TO), Italy Manhattan, KS, USA

Jacqueline Fletcher John D. Mumford

Department of Entomology Centre for Environmental Policy
and Plant Pathology Imperial College London
Oklahoma State University Ascot, Berks, UK
Stillwater, OK, USA

Plant Pathology in the 21st Century

ISBN 978-3-319-46896-9    ISBN 978-3-319-46897-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-46897-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016963796

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Chapter 12 was created within the capacity of an US government employment. US copyright protection
does not apply.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

In a world facing a growing risk of man-made and natural crises and disasters, the
security of citizens and critical infrastructures and the environment protection have
become a high priority in the European Union.
Strengthening capacities in crisis management and improving resilience repre-
sent key policy and research challenges. To better protect citizens and national
infrastructures, the race is now on improving Europe’s preparedness and prevention
to man-made and natural threats, as well as reinforcing operational response capaci-
ties in case of emergency situations.
This book is the outcome of the “Plant and Food Biosecurity” project, a Network
of Excellence funded within the security thematic area of the European Seventh
Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7), aim-
ing to invest in knowledge and develop further technologies in order to protect citi-
zens from man-made (accidental or intentional) and natural threats.
Within this framework, the project tackled the threat of and damage from bio-
logical incidents of accidental, natural or intentional origin, including acts of bioter-
rorism, defined as the intentional release of harmful biological agents such as
bacteria, viruses or toxins to cause fear, illness or death of people, animals or plants
and/or disrupt social, economic or political stability.
The project scope embedded the overall risk management cycle, from prepared-
ness, prevention, detection and surveillance to response and recovery in the topic
areas of plant biosecurity and food safety, taking also into account the need to ensure
a proper transfer (and implementation) of research outputs – including “practical
tools” – to users, namely, producers, policy-makers, scientists, agri-food industry
and field practitioners.
A proper and tailor-made exchange of information about research project results is
essential to enhance the transfer of research solutions to users in a timely and relevant
fashion in order to enable a response to potential agroterrorism threats. Such exchanges
are also needed to identify and address users’ needs regarding research, technologies
and policies, especially in a field where EU capabilities to detect and respond to agro-
terrorism, or biocriminal acts, are ruled by a number of international, EU and national
policies divided among many different organisations.

v
vi Foreword

The book addresses the result of tasks accomplished by 13 partners located in

eight different countries, in Europe and beyond: it outlines and characterises threats
and gaps in plant biosecurity and food safety areas, analyses the relevant policy
framework and the lessons learned from the practice and identifies the most promis-
ing tools and methods for risk assessment, detection, diagnostic and containment.
In addition, the authors are also making reference to capacity building, research
networking and knowledge transfer, as well as to opportunities for further collabo-
ration in addressing the full spectrum of global biosecurity concerns. As a conse-
quence, this book will be a helpful tool both in becoming more acquainted with the
issue of plant and food biosecurity and also in being aware of the possible ways to
implement further research and analysis on these subjects.

European Commission Philippe Quevauviller

Directorate-General Migration and Home Affair
Rue de la Loi 200, B-1049 Brussels
Preface

Biosecurity is a strategic and integrated approach for analysing and managing rele-
vant risks to human, animal and plant life and health and associated risks to the
environment. Plant biosecurity aims at protecting all plant resources and the food
supply from the natural or intentional introduction, establishment and spread of
plant pests, pathogens and noxious weeds. Although most plant disease outbreaks
have natural causes or are the result of inadvertent introductions of pathogens
through human activities, the risk of a deliberate introduction of a high consequence
plant pathogen cannot be excluded.
This book is part of a series of volumes on plant pathology in the twenty-first
century, and it stems from Plant and Food Biosecurity (PLANTFOODSEC), a
Network of Excellence running from 2011 to 2016 and funded under the European
Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development
(FP7). PLANTFOODSEC focused on biological threats having the capacity to
affect and damage agriculture, infect plants and ultimately affect food and feed at
any stage in the supply chain. The project aimed to develop and implement a virtual
centre of competence to prevent, respond to and recover from both intentional
(agroterrorism) and unintentional biosecurity threats to EU agriculture, farming and
the agri-food industry.
PLANTFOODSEC encompassed plant biosecurity and food safety areas, focus-
ing not only on enhancing capabilities for prevention, detection, response and
recovery from threatening plant pathogens but also on mycotoxins and on the con-
tamination of fresh produce and other plant-derived foods by human pathogens on
plants (HPOPs) – primarily enteropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli and
Salmonella spp. – that can colonise and contaminate plants at any point along the
food production and distribution chains, creating possibilities of outbreaks of food-­
borne illness.
The considerable amount of research promoted by the European Union – which
has also involved non-EU countries such as the United States, Israel and Turkey –
has made possible the development of a comprehensive set of tools covering the
entire risk management cycle, from prevention to preparedness, detection, response
and recovery, which are presented in this book.

vii
viii Preface

In particular, the different chapters cover the identification and regulatory analy-
sis of biosecurity challenges, pest risk assessment, experimental and modelling
approaches applied in plant disease epidemiology, decision tools and microbial
forensics, diagnostics and detection tools. Moreover, training, dissemination and
networking subjects are also covered.
We believe that, besides representing a written testimony of PLANTFOODSEC
project, this book will be useful for all the stakeholders in the agri-food chain,
including producers, researchers and authorities responsible for plant health and
food security interested to go in depth into the world of intentional and uninten-
tional threats to plant biosecurity and to food safety.
We would like to convey our appreciation to all the colleagues who accepted to
be part of this book, Zuzana Bernhart and her group at Springer for their kind sup-
port and Laura Castellani for her skilful technical assistance.

Grugliasco, Italy Maria Lodovica Gullino

Manhattan, KS, USA James P. Stack
Stillwater, OK, USA Jacqueline Fletcher
London, UK John D. Mumford
Contents

1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant

and Food Biosecurity............................................................................... 1
Paul Robb
2 Characterization of the Threat Resulting from Plant
Pathogen Use as Anti-crop Bioweapons: An EU
Perspective on Agroterrorism................................................................. 31
Frédéric Suffert
3 Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Food Biosecurity........................ 61
Jacqueline Fletcher, Hami Alpas, Christine M. Henry,
Edward Haynes, Heinz W. Dehne, Li Maria Ma, Yeşim Soyer,
Filiz Yeni, Paola Colla, and Paul Robb
4 Recent Outbreaks of Human Pathogens on Plants (HPOPs)
on Fresh Produce – Lessons Learned from the Practice...................... 77
Hami Alpas, Filiz Yeni, Yeşim Soyer, and Jacqueline Fletcher
5 A Risk Management Framework for Plant Biosecurity....................... 97
Abraham Gamliel, James P. Stack, and John D. Mumford
6 Integrating Crop Bioterrorism Hazards into Pest Risk
Assessment Tools...................................................................................... 121
John D. Mumford, Adrian W. Leach, Johnson Holt, Frédéric Suffert,
Ivan Sache, Benedicte Moignot, and R. Alexander Hamilton
7 Detection of Mycotoxins in Food: Applications of Rapid
and Reliable Tools in a Biosecurity Context.......................................... 143
Abraham Gamliel, Heinz W. Dehne, Petr Karlovsky,
and Jacqueline Fletcher
8 Containment of Mycotoxins in the Food Chain by Using
Decontamination and Detoxification Techniques.................................. 163
Davide Spadaro and Angelo Garibaldi

ix
x Contents

9 Decision Tool for Assessing the Likelihood of an Intentional

Foodborne Illness Outbreak.................................................................... 179
Li Maria Ma, Jacqueline Fletcher, John D. Mumford, Johnson Holt
and Adrian W. Leach
10 Diagnostic Tools for Plant Biosecurity................................................... 209
Jane E. Thomas, Thomas A. Wood, Maria Lodovica Gullino,
and Giuseppe Ortu
11 The European Union Plant Diagnostic Information
System (EUPDIS): A Platform for Collaborative Diagnostics
and a Tool for Early Detection of Plant Pathogens............................... 227
Paul J. Verrier, Jane E. Thomas, and James P. Stack
12 Containment and Eradication of Invasive Pathogens........................... 243
Abraham Gamliel and Jacqueline Fletcher
13 Applications and Assessment of Microbial Forensics
in a Field Outbreak of Salmon Blotch of Onion in Israel.................... 257
Jacqueline Fletcher, Abraham Gamliel, James P. Stack,
Heinz W. Dehne, Yochai Isack, and Ian Moncrief
14 The Fragmentation of Plant and Food Biosecurity
Research Networks: A Scientometric Analysis...................................... 289
Vincent Cardon and Marc Barbier
15 Developing an International Communications Network:
The PlantFoodSec Model........................................................................ 309
Anita Kocic, Marta Bonifert, Alessandro Bertin,
Paola Colla, and Maria Lodovica Gullino
16 Training and Knowledge Transfer to Support Strong,
Comprehensive National and International Plant
Biosecurity Preparedness........................................................................ 327
Christine M. Henry, Charles R. Lane, Paola Colla,
and Maria Lodovica Gullino
17 Making the Most of International Opportunities
and Experiences for Researchers’ Training Within
a Large, Multinational EU Project: The Students’ Perspective.......... 349
Tania Llera, Ian Moncrief, Yochai Isack, Filiz Yeni,
Vincent Cardon, Giovanna Gilardi, James Woodhall,
Giuseppe Ortu, and Maria Lodovica Gullino
18 The Need for International Perspectives to Solve Global
Biosecurity Challenges............................................................................. 363
John D. Mumford, Maria Lodovica Gullino, James P. Stack,
Jacqueline Fletcher, and M. Megan Quinlan
Chapter 1
Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats
and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity

Paul Robb

Abstract Whilst the majority of plant derived foods produced for human or animal
consumption are safe and wholesome, sometimes complex production and distribu-
tion systems are not immune to vulnerabilities, threats and gaps in biosecurity as a
number of examples will show. We live in an ever changing world so vigilance is
required to identify and prevent new and emerging issues that could impact on pro-
duction capacity, plant biosecurity or food safety and food chain resilience. Rather
than list already well known issues, a number of generic approaches to considering
vulnerabilities will be described encompassing natural, accidental and malicious
events. Tools such as HACCP, TACCP, PESTLE and plant risk assessments help
managers suggest how vulnerabilities and threats in food and plant biosecurity can
be managed to tolerable levels. Tools and datasets developed within PlantFoodSec
that support a proportionate response are included in discussions to identify predict-
able issues by stakeholders at all levels.

Keywords Plant food chain • Vulnerability • Risk • Threat assessment • TACCP •

PESTLE • Lessons natural and malicious

1.1 Introduction

The vast majority of plant derived foods which are produced for human or animal
consumption are safe and wholesome. However, often complex production and
distribution systems are not immune to a range of potential threats and imperfec-
tions in the “seed to salad on the plate” food chain. There are a wide range of protec-
tive systems in place to prevent the adverse consequences of natural, accidental or
malicious contamination including disease outbreaks affecting both food plants and
consumers. Many of these protective measures have been established following
significant outbreaks either in the plants themselves or because of an adverse effect
on consumers. The strong science base that exists in this field has built upon the

P. Robb (*)
Fera Science Ltd, York, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

M.L. Gullino et al. (eds.), Practical Tools for Plant and Food Biosecurity, Plant
Pathology in the 21st Century 8, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-46897-6_1
2 P. Robb

need to prevent and respond to such events and has made major contributions in
particular to the prevention and control of disease and contamination at all stages of
this arm of the food chain.
The PlantFoodSec project (https://www.plantfoodsec.eu/) has brought together
key members of the international scientific community who understand plant pro-
duction methods and have experience of developing, establishing and using tools to
enhance biosecurity and safeguard the plant food chain. As part of this project team,
a small group of specialists (the security panel) provided internal review and guid-
ance to the project teams on matters which may have potential to be misused for
malicious purposes. In reality this function provided reassurance to the teams that
their work should be published and disseminated as their outputs reinforced protec-
tive measures rather than highlight major gaps in knowledge and vulnerabilities in
the food chain. The panel also encouraged collaboration with other agencies and
promoted project outputs to those engaged in emergency response and in particular
with protection of agricultural food production systems. Although the project had a
plant focus, the vulnerabilities considered and gaps filled by the project have wider
applicability which this chapter aims to demonstrate.
As we live in an ever changing world, vigilance is required to identify new and
emerging issues that could impact on production capacity, plant biosecurity or food
safety and food chain resilience. In this chapter we will explore a number of ways
in which vulnerabilities can be identified, threats evaluated and suggest how gaps in
food and plant biosecurity can be managed to acceptable levels. Many of these
approaches refer to tools and datasets that have been developed within PlantFoodSec
to support a proportionate response to any predictable issues. Rather than highlight
particular weaknesses, this chapter seeks to explain some of the many approaches
available to stakeholders at different levels to identify gaps in food chain
biosecurity.
In this chapter the term “food security” is used in the context of guarantee of
supply and “food defence” in the context of safeguarding the food chain from mali-
cious intervention with “food safety” being used in the context of ensuring food is
wholesome and can be consumed safely.

1.2 Vulnerabilities

One definition of the term vulnerability is:

“Exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or
emotionally” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/vulnerable).
In this context, emotional impacts will include public perception encompassinging,
at times, the adverse consequences of intervention. Perception of food safety risks
is a topic outside the scope of this work but there is a large literature describing the
importance of the topic (e.g. Lobb et al. 2007; Redmond and Griffith 2007; Verbeke
et al. 2007).
1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 3

There is little doubt that closer links between the natural and social sciences are
developing with mutual benefits but there are still challenges in developing a com-
mon lexicon and shared understanding in this area. Managing stakeholder expecta-
tion will continue to be a key aspect of consequence management of unexpected
events.
It would be naïve to suggest that the food chain or plant production systems are
not open to the possibility of damage or could suffer harmful impacts from natural,
accidental or malicious actions but the detailed examination of vulnerabilities (and
mitigation measures) is conducted at many levels. For example,
• at the operational level producers or food processors may consider production of
single products or crops,
• at the tactical level, larger businesses might consider production and storage
options to maximise retailer choice and shelf-life,
• strategically, international businesses or Governments may consider a wider
international food chain, cross border issues and multiple supply chains to guar-
antee supply.
These are not rigid examples but hopefully demonstrate the complexity of assess-
ing vulnerabilities in the food chain and the need to consider a very wide range of
stakeholder requirements. Vulnerabilities can arise for a number of reasons and it is
convenient to consider these as natural, accidental or malicious.

1.3 Natural Vulnerabilities

Plants for food or feed are rarely grown aseptically outside of specialised research
institutes (some hydroponic systems may be near to this) and the growing environ-
ment is itself vulnerable to a range of naturally occurring events that impact upon
food/feed plants.
Perhaps the most obvious natural vulnerability is susceptibility to disease out-
breaks (e.g. Johnson and Cummings 2015) or pest infestation (e.g. http://www.fao.
org/emergencies/emergency-types/plant-pests-and-diseases/en/) which can affect
yields, impact upon availability or affect nutritional value with an impact on food
security (guarantee of supply), especially in those countries where alternatives are
scarce or uneconomically viable to access.
Water security is increasingly becoming recognised as being a key vulnerability
in some countries with impacts on irrigation as well as biosecurity, e.g. where dis-
infection or processing of water is needed before use. Control of water will become
more important if recent changes in weather patterns continue to develop with a
shift in deposition causing a change in drought and flooding patterns across the
globe.
Other natural vulnerabilities include events such as the eruption of the
Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland in April 2010 which received widespread press
coverage (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8634944.stm). Significant
4 P. Robb

impacts of this event included restrictions on air travel from the resulting ash cloud
which impacted across many parts of Europe. Whilst direct impacts on food were
limited to potential increased fluoride levels in deposited ash affecting nearby pas-
ture and grazing, indirect impacts were felt on transportation of short shelf-life pro-
duce which is mainly conducted by air. Not only does a freeze on air travel result in
financial losses as perishable goods deteriorate but also a potential biosecurity chal-
lenge and waste disposal issues.
Without needing to engage in the climate change debate (http://www3.epa.gov/
climatechange/science/overview.html, http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climat-
echange/overview), the world is clearly undergoing a series of weather variances
that are impacting on plant production with increased vulnerability to weather
extremes, changes in growing seasons and increased prevalence of diseases that
previously would have been classified as being exotic being observed.
In addition, natural evolutionary change in organisms has caused problems that
have impacted across Europe. For example an outbreak of Shiga-toxin producing
Escherichia coli (STEC), serotype O104:H4 (Karch et al. 2012) originally reported
in Germany (European Food Safety Authority 2011) in May 2011, proved to be a
significant event. This was initially associated with consumption of fresh vegetables
although later, this was linked to consumption of seed sprouts. Assignment of the
source of infection in consumers was initially flawed and attributed in error to
cucumbers grown in Spain where German laboratories detected E. coli in imported
cucumbers. Application of the precautionary principle (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri = URISERV:l32042&from = EN) meant that, in
the absence of data to the contrary at the time, large volumes of cucumbers in Spain
were consigned to landfill (as well as other salad vegetables which consumers felt
were at risk). Compensation payments from the EU to the affected producers of
€210 million did not meet all losses with substantial reputational loss by a major
industry. Further examination of the organisms detected in the cucumbers identified
a different strain of E Coli to that causing serious health issues.
Consumption of sprouted seeds was subsequently associated with occurrence of
an identical outbreak in France in June of 2011 with evidence suggesting a common
source. Eventually, tracing suggested that the contaminated material most likely
arose from a specific consignment of fenugreek seeds imported from Egypt.
The situation was complicated by the fact that STEC O104:H4 was a very rare
serogroup in humans in the EU and indeed worldwide with only low single figure
cases being reported before the outbreak. At the end of the outbreak, a total of 3911
cases had been reported to the ECDC and WHO.
This is a good example of how vulnerable the plant food supply chain can be from
naturally evolving organisms. It is not uncommon for assignment of the causative
agent for food poisoning to be made from clinical isolates rather than from examina-
tion of the foods consumed. It is of course a key protective measure that the food
industry tests routinely for microbial contamination in produce. Nevertheless genetic
mutation of E. coli O104 impacted on the assays used by National and EU Community
Reference Laboratories (NRL and CRL) but rapid diagnostic method development
by the CRL allowed NRL to begin testing with minimal method d­ evelopment which
1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 5

aided public reassurance and eventual control of a complex situation. This infrastruc-
ture was a significant resource used to manage the outbreak.
It may be worthwhile describing the precautionary principle used by regulatory
authorities across Europe to safeguard consumers. This is invoked “when a phe-
nomenon, product or process may have a dangerous effect, identified by a scientific
and objective evaluation, if this evaluation does not allow the risk to be determined
with sufficient certainty” (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/
HTML/?uri = URISERV:l32042&from = EN).
This principle may only be invoked when the following three conditions are met
after a suitable risk assessment where:
• Adverse effects or potentially adverse effects have been identified;
• Scientific data available has been evaluated and
• Scientific uncertainty has been taken into account.
In addition, any response should,
• Ensure proportionality between the measures taken and the chosen level of
protection;
• Maintain non-discrimination in application of the measures;
• Require consistency of the measures to be taken with similar measures already
used in similar situations or using similar approaches;
• Include an examination of the benefits and costs of action or lack of action;
• Review the measures in the light of scientific developments.
The legislation notes that “in the case of an action being taken under the precau-
tionary principle, the producer, manufacturer or importer may be required to prove
the absence of danger.”
Producers/suppliers requiring additional testing to demonstrate lack of hazard
will add to pressures on finite laboratory resources and in practice collaboration
between authorities and producers can be mutually beneficial.
In general, food production chains are protected by well-established mechanisms
operating at local, national and international levels so as to safeguard products from
a range of challenges throughout their life cycle.
The majority of plant based foods are grown in environments which are con-
trolled to a greater or lesser extent by human activity. Growers will tend crops with
the aim of maximising yields which can be a driver towards increased biosecurity
(prevention of infection/infestation) and biosafety (prevention of harm arising from
a biological infection).

1.4 Accidents

Accidental contamination of food plants occurs from time to time from man-made
or natural events but in general, accidental chemical contamination occurs much
more frequently than biological. However, one of the more common sources of
6 P. Robb

accidental biological contamination arises from non-ideal storage of harvested

crops. There are many examples of this resulting in fungal growth with generation
of toxin.
One example of popular interest concerns recent theories regarding the Salem
Village (USA) Witch Trials in the late 1690s. Environmental conditions in the vil-
lage of Salem Massachusetts in 1691–3 were possibly favourable for growth of the
fungal contaminant, ergot, producing LSD like compounds which could induce hal-
lucinations and symptoms thought at the time to be associated with demonic posses-
sion (Caporael 1976). Whether this was the case or not, it remains a credible example
of possible accidental food poisoning with disastrous consequences for those
affected.
Food poisoning from preparation of regional delicacies can be due to careless-
ness, poor hygiene or in some cases an unfortunate combination of events. For exam-
ple, the Indonesian delicacy Tempeh Bongkrek is made by fermenting coconut
presscake or coconut milk with the fungus Rhizopus oligosporus. When the mould
grows, the mycelia physically bind the coconut together to form a cake. However, if
the product is contaminated with Burkholderia cocovenenans, an aerobic gram-­
negative bacteria, then serious poisoning can occur with 34 deaths per year being
reported in the ostensibly plant based product between 1951 and 1975, at which time
it was banned (although illicit kitchens were suspected as still producing the deli-
cacy). Burkholderia cocovenenans has some interesting biology and when particular
nutrient combinations are available, the organism will produce toxins with bongkre-
kic acid being the main toxin produced (Garcia et al. 1999; Scotter et al. 2015).
Accidental release from experimental facilities remains another vulnerability,
albeit such facilities operate under tight controls. Research into highly infectious
diseases is normally conducted in specialised high containment laboratories or
assessing invasive species in tightly controlled environments. Such facilities are
tightly managed and will include measures to prevent accidental release, safe dis-
posal of wastes and fumigation routines to mitigate the risk from spills or other
adverse events. Some plant pathogens do not require such high containment (bio-
safety level 3 or 4) but if they are exotic (not endemic in the area where research is
being conducted) then additional precautions offered by such containment facilities
(biosafety level 3 for example) may be useful in risk mitigation.
Many generic biosecurity measures are aimed at limiting the impact of acciden-
tal importation or releases of plant disease or pests. For example, the UK plant
biosecurity strategy published in 2014 (https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/
system/uploads/attachment_data/file/307355/pb14168-plant-health-strategy.pdf)
describes a number of the key considerations that need to be taken:
• activity should be directed at priority pests and pathways and be informed by
comprehensive risk assessment
• includes plant pathology, population dynamics, and
• epidemiology, as well as the social sciences to understand the values at stake
• meets EU and international obligations, to enable businesses to trade in clean
material and grow
1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 7

• ensures everyone (government and its agencies, industry, NGOs, landowners and
the public) shares a common understanding of biosecurity and their role and
responsibilities
• ensures that those who benefit from plant biosecurity activity should, where
appropriate, be responsible for that activity and bear the cost of it
• ensures the Plant Health Services are able to respond effectively to new and
emerging threats
• ensures GB as a whole is resilient, capable and prepared to respond flexibly to
new and emerging threats
• ensures GB production has a good reputation to allow exports of plants and plant
products to develop, with consequent economic and social benefits
As part of this strategy, work is taken:
• pre-border through collaboration with international authorities to share under-
standing of disease movement through Europe and understanding of novel
threats,
• at the borders to assess incoming plant material (and some soils) to mitigate the
risk of accidental importation of invasive species,
• inland to detect any new infections quickly and develop/exercise eradication
contingency plans.
Similar approaches are taken across Europe although managing plant material
movements across land borders has additional challenges.
Good biosecurity is key to management of accidental outbreaks. Biosecurity is
very much scenario dependant but hinges on good hygiene, high levels of diligence
in plant product inspection, effective record keeping to aid tracing and importantly
shared risk assessments on specific hazards. As an example the UK plant pest
risk register (https://secure.fera.defra.gov.uk/phiw/riskRegister/downloadEntire-
RiskRegister.cfm) contains over 800 pests affecting food and decorative plants.
Vulnerabilities are not limited to agricultural crops or imported material and
even the so called “free foods” (wild fungi, fruits, berries, etc.) are not immune to
natural disease outbreaks and disease reservoirs in companion plants (e.g. in hedge-
rows) can be an important factor in risk evaluation, mitigation and outbreak
recovery.
There may be overlap between natural and accidental vulnerabilities and it may
not always be easy to identify malicious events if they are covert in nature.

1.5 Malicious Actions

Fortunately, malicious attacks against plant production are relatively rare.

Nevertheless they do occur. Gardening competitions such as “Britain in Bloom” can
attract unwanted addition of pesticides by rivals to flower baskets/beds with disas-
trous consequences for competitors. However, although such events and domestic
8 P. Robb

dispute equivalents are reported from time to time, there are few malicious attacks
either against food plant production capacity using biological agents or using food
plants as a delivery mechanism. However, there has been a widely publicised attack
using salad vegetables as a delivery vector in an attempt to affect human health on
a local population.
In 1981, the Rajneeshee cult bought a 64,000 acre farm in Oregon USA as part
of a plan by their leader, an Indian philosopher Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, to build a
Utopian city on their new land. Having taken over control of the local town council
through elections, the cult was able to gain permissions to undertake limited devel-
opment but was still unable to obtain the regional planning consents they required
to expand their development into a new city.
In the middle of September 1984, several locals became ill from salmonella food
poisoning with all having eaten at a local restaurant. Salmonella typhimurium was
quickly recognised as the causative agent and those affected recovered after treat-
ment with normal therapies (Torok et al. 1997). Initial views of investigating author-
ities were that this was a natural event with poor food handling being suspected as
the root cause.
However, a week or so later, the total number of affected persons in the outbreak
reached over 750 in a biphasic epidemic. A major response was initiated with local
hospitals dealing successfully with 45 hospitalised casualties but fortunately again
there were no fatalities. At that time, there was no evidence of deliberate contamina-
tion. Once again poor food handling practices were considered as being the cause
although the relatively high number of restaurants involved was unusual. The inci-
dent would have remained a natural/accidental contamination event but a year later,
a disaffected member of the cult alerted the authorities to the possibility that the
food poisoning was deliberate.
On further investigation, US authorities found covert laboratories within the cult
premises with identical Salmonella typhimurium to the outbreak strain being found.
Prosecutions resulted and it later became clear that cult members had been encour-
aged to avoid restaurants during the period in which salad bar items were contami-
nated. This was to reduce the number of non-cult voters who would attend the polls
at a local election thus influencing the election results in favour of cult members.
This example highlights that detection of covert biological attacks is challenging
although response (health management) processes are virtually identical for covert
and overt releases.

1.6 Assessing Vulnerabilities and Gaps

There are well documented approaches to assessing food chain vulnerabilities (e.g.
http://www.sigmachain.eu/uploads/dateien/fp6-­518451_stakeholders_guide_on_
vulnerabilities_web.pdf; http://www.springer.com/978-90-481-9557-2) which may
also apply in general to plant production systems. Plant and wider food production
1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 9

systems encompass a “farm to fork” process which can be extremely variable in

scale and complexity.
At the simplest end of this spectrum, production can be at a local level with the
aim of growing food for personal consumption. At the other end of the spectrum,
large industrial scale facilities may be producing millions of units daily (e.g. billions
of loaves of bread annually from the 731.6 million metric tons of wheat produced
each year) which often feed into broad distribution and retail networks from which
consumers make an informed choice. In the latter instance the food chain is not
widely vulnerable to a short term disturbance of a few days in one particular loca-
tion (e.g. a spoilage problem caused by transport disruption in one country). Whilst
this could impact locally, an international supply chain would support larger scale
users who could switch suppliers to overcome limited timespan shortages. However,
should a plant disease outbreak occur in the major wheat producing countries affect-
ing yields, then this could have a much wider impact, especially if the genetic pool
of plants used is common amongst producers and is susceptible to the same
diseases.
Products themselves can be complex involving large numbers of ingredients and the
growing demand in industrialised nations for “ready to cook” products means that a
single unexpected contaminant in a common ingredient can have major consequences.
In the UK, a major product recall in the period 2003–2005 (http://tna.europarchive.
org/20111030113958/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/sudani/) was ini-
tiated because widely used ingredients (chilli powder) had been coloured with non-
permitted Sudan Dyes to make them more visually attractive to users (perhaps based on
adding a red coloured chemical to make the chilli seem hotter.).
The recall included contaminated spices themselves, sauces made from them in
products destined for retail consumption and for use in commercial production
facilities or in pre-prepared foods. With around 600 retail and wholesale product
types being recalled by UK and EU authorities because of a potential health impact
from the genotoxic and carcinogenic contaminant, there was a significant impact on
regulators, producers and significant concern for consumers.
Mislabelled foods and fraudulent descriptions are all known vulnerabilities but
much work has been conducted to improve traceability of foods and in effective
labelling to ensure authenticity of products (Kelly et al. 2011; Vemireddy et al.
2015; Phelan and Jonker 2015).
Whether a production system is simple or complicated, it is important to con-
sider and document considerations of vulnerabilities and the different compart-
ments in the food chain often include quite specific production and distribution
networks. It is common practice for each link in the chain to consider relevant
microbiological, chemical and physical hazards and to establish and document
effective interventions using the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
(HACCP) approach. More recently, Threat Analysis Critical Control Point (TACCP)
and Vulnerability Analysis Critical Control Point (VACCP) approaches have become
parts of the method by which the food chain can be reviewed, allowing high risk
activities to be mitigated and safeguards introduced to prevent rather than manage
the risks.
10 P. Robb

Fig. 1.1 Process map for a generic plant based food production system

A variant, Risk Analysis Critical Control Point analysis (Serra et al. 1999), has
also been reported in which the consequences of product or process variation on the
consumer/end user are assessed but this is not, as yet, in common use.
These approaches are not developed specifically for any one part of the food
chain but can be applied generically both vertically (up and down a food chain) and
horizontally (encompassing the detail of a particular element of the chain). Whilst
the level of detail will vary from a farmer producing a single crop to a retailer ensur-
ing that multiple short shelf-life product lines remain available for consumers, simi-
lar approaches are possible.
There is no intention to describe HACCP in detail in this chapter as the wide
literature on the subject is easy to obtain with formal training courses being readily
available from a range of providers. Suffice to say that in common with other critical
control point assessments, the first stage is to map the process under consideration.
A simple process map or process flow is shown in Fig. 1.1 as an example. Process
maps will vary in detail but it is important to prioritise efforts in complex systems,
for example, work undertaken which identified agents of concern has been extended
to include naturally occurring diseases and food crops (Suffert et al. 2009).
1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 11

Irrigation of plants

Borehole sprinkler Pesticide or

supply fertiliser application

Farm building runoff

onto field

Stream bursting
Field
banks

Rainfall

Wildlife

Runoff

Fig. 1.2 Process map for one element of a plant based food production system

From a HACCP perspective, this may be too high a level of detail with each box
in Fig. 1.1 having to be broken down into more detail to identify intervention points
that would reduce the possibility of a biosecurity breach. Figure 1.2 shows a more
detailed breakdown of the irrigation element of the system outlined in Fig. 1.1.
Clearly each of the boxes shown in Fig. 1.2 can be broken down further, for
example, the borehole sprinkler system box may need to include microbiological
loading of the water, whether there is an intermediate storage tank for the irrigation
system, dead legs in the system, etc.
In the system described in Fig. 1.1, ensuring that certified disease free seed is
used may be a critical control point, or perhaps ensuring that the post-harvest
­cleaning process does not produce a reservoir of disease in a dip tank may be
another. Ensuring the soil used for planting is clean of disease and the field margins
are free of other plants that can harbour crop disease could be other key steps. For
each critical node in the process, a monitoring and control plan should be developed
with associated record keeping and management infrastructure to develop and
inform contingency plans for dealing with anomalous occurrences. Importantly this
can be used to reassure customers (wholesalers, retailers and consumers) that pro-
duction is under control.
12 P. Robb

1.7 Learning Lessons

Despite best endeavours, food poisoning and plant disease outbreaks will occur
from time to time but understanding the reasons for outbreaks is vital in identifying
vulnerabilities in the food chain and informing risk assessments.
For example, in 2006, an E. coli outbreak in the USA (Grant et al. 2008) was
found to have been caused by contamination of spinach leaves in retail “ready to
eat” salad leaf packets. In that outbreak nearly 200 persons were affected with 3
fatalities and haemolytic-uremic syndrome was observed in a number of
infections.
The disease was identified in 13 samples of product from a single production run
(as shown by a common batch code which highlights the importance of product
traceability) but the impact was felt across the USA (http://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2006/
spinach-10-2006.html). Sourcing staple foods from a wide geographical area is not
uncommon and a faulty product could be quickly spread over a wide geographical
area (perhaps controlled by different regulatory authorities) which could make epi-
demiology based tracing based on clinical cases challenging.
However, in this instance, tracing of infected material using production batch
codes suggested contaminated packages had used plant material sourced from
potentially 4 ranches. Investigation teams visited these premises and relatively large
numbers of feral swine were observed on at least one of them (Jay et al. 2007). The
teams took swab samples from captured feral animals and on one ranch in particu-
lar, the strain of disease found was very similar to the outbreak strain. With 149
animals (estimated) on these premises, this was considered to be a likely cause of
the outbreak. Major incidents are quite often the result of multiple factors and
although E. coli was not observed in local waterways (a common vector in the envi-
ronment to plant transfer chain), faecal contamination by feral animals direct onto
the plants or adjacent soil was also considered possible.
The fencing used around production fields was not sufficient to prevent ingress
of animals onto the fields (swine can dig under fences) and signs of rooting were
observed in the soil where plants were grown. In addition, the machine used to har-
vest baby spinach could also pick up faecal material on soil along with the plants
harvested and thus could have contributed to contamination of the produce.
Lessons from this outbreak would suggest that enhanced monitoring of water
sources, improved physical separation of large wildlife from spinach fields, a
different harvesting approach and improved washing/process water testing with an
increased sampling rate for final product testing may be worth considering. Such
lessons are invaluable in highlighting issues that might have wider applicability and
are a major resource for those wishing to improve food chain resilience.
Additional monitoring of the finished product gives extra reassurance for con-
sumers and may increase the probability of finding contamination “hot spots”.
However in large scale production systems finding spot contamination in time to be
of use is a significant challenge given finite analytical resources, some relatively
lengthy analytical turnaround times and a short shelf-life product.
1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 13

Focussing the use of finite resources to key control points is a significant benefit
of a HACCP approach both in terms of cost effectiveness and consumer protection.
In the above example, it may well be that monitoring the wash water used to clean
multiple plants could show the system was under control compared to the benefits
of extending finished product examination. Each compartment in the process flow is
potentially specific to that scenario and assessments need to be undertaken by staff
trained in risk assessment who fully understand the processes under consideration
and the limitations of microbiological examination methods.
Irrigation water is a significant potential source of contamination; particularly
for those crops which undergo limited processing (crops undergoing heat treatment
may be less vulnerable). Other control points worth considering in HACCP assess-
ments would include operator hygiene, machine cleaning regimes, process/cleaning
water condition and storage conditions.
Protecting plants growing in the fields from infection by plant pathogens is also
critical to ensure a satisfactory yield and quality of product. This will require con-
sideration of seed quality – is the seed stock from disease free sources?, is there a
need to use coated seed and are there associated risks, if the farmer chooses to use
young plants from a nursery?, what checks are required to ensure the seedlings are
disease free?, is there a history of plant disease in the fields to be used?, can the
plants in the margins of the field act as reservoirs of disease?. A HACCP approach
needs to consider a very wide range of issues and expert advice may need to be
developed and maintained by a multi-disciplinary team.

1.8 Microbiological Examination

One of the major technical challenges facing microbiologists is rapid detection of

food poisoning organisms or plant pathogens at infectious dose levels in produce.
Whilst modern molecular methods such as RT-PCR (e.g. Szabo et al. 2015; Zhang
et al. 2011), or LAMP (e.g. D’Agostino et al. 2015; Wu et al. 2015) are sensitive and
can detect for example salmonella, listeria and some yersinia spp. at levels likely to
cause infection, this is not the case for all human pathogens. Some E. coli (Lynch
et al. 2009; Friesema et al. 2008), norovirus (Cook et al. 2014), Shigella spp (Lewis
et al. 2009) for example can have infective doses in food of the order of 10–100
colony forming units (cfu) which would be challenging to detect rapidly unless
large sample volumes were taken for testing or if culturing was performed to grow
microbes up to detectable levels. Inevitably culturing of bacteria takes time (e.g.
8–36 h) and with short shelf-life foods, this approach may only give a result after the
product has been purchased and possibly consumed. Nevertheless it is clear that
technologies are getting closer to being suitable for routine use in real time produc-
tion system monitoring with increasing research consideration being given to devel-
opment of field side testing capability, especially for plant pathogens. (Tomlinson
et al. 2005).
14 P. Robb

An alternative approach to looking for target organisms that originate from faecal
contamination is to look for other indicators of contamination (e.g. coliform markers
rather than specific bio-threats) as these may be easier to find at higher concentra-
tions that the biothreat agent (e.g. Harwood et al. 2014; Amoah et al. 2006). Optical
detection of such contamination or disease on plants, e.g. using hyperspectral imag-
ing (Bock et al. 2010) has been developed to the point where commercial food scan-
ners are now becoming available. Test samples are irradiated with specific
wavelengths of light and reflectance or fluorescence is used to detect surface anoma-
lies where disease or faecal contamination may be present. Faecal material residues
can be seen on plants using scanners at levels below that possible using the naked eye
and are being evaluated for screening salad leaf crops and apples and isolate cultures.
This is a rapidly evolving application (Pu et al. 2015) of established technology and
scanners can range well beyond the visible spectrum on a production line.
Classical microbiological approaches to identifying plant disease or contamina-
tion are not discussed here but many of the “gold standard” methods available to
laboratories require intensive and time consuming effort to develop, validate and
obtain agreement that they are fit for purpose, examples being the many methods
established as ISO standards (http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html). Even so, escala-
tion of capacity to deal with an unexpected outbreak can be challenging if laborato-
ries need to expand their scope or scale of operations, e.g. to develop high throughput
methods (Adams et al. 2013) or consider unusual organisms. Many relevant labora-
tories have a portfolio of accredited methods or management systems (e.g. to ISO
17025:2005 (http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber = 39883) or
ISO 9001:2015 (http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.
htm?csnumber=62085)) and thus can demonstrate a quality infrastructure around
which extensions to scope or quality control of examinations can be based.
Networks of plant protection laboratories are key to safeguarding the plant food
chain. Organisations such as the EPPO (http://www.eppo.int/), an intergovernmen-
tal organization which facilitates for European cooperation in plant health, develops
international strategies to prevent the introduction and spread of dangerous pests
and promote safe and effective control methods. The World Trade Organisation and
the International Plant Protection Convention are also key drivers in this area
(https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/coher_e/wto_ippc_e.htm). Human patho-
gens on plant issues are managed through a mixture of plant examination specialists
and human health expertise, e.g. the European Centre for Disease Prevention and
Control (http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/Pages/home.aspx) and their regional/national
counterparts. The links between such control laboratories are vital in advising of
outbreaks, novel developments (either in disease evolution or novel testing meth-
ods) and in managing cross-border issues.
Increasing surge capacity can be problematic in the midst of an outbreak where
rapid screening is required and alternative examination methods may need to be
considered, even if there are relatively large uncertainties associated with testing
outcomes. As long as there is a low false negative testing rate and confirmatory meth-
ods are used to evaluate presumptive positive findings from screening, then less well
defined methods may have utility if large numbers of samples are to be examined.
1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 15

1.9 Other Critical Control Points

HACCP tends to be used close to production but more strategic considerations are
also valuable, looking at where a wider food chain may be vulnerable or where a
processing facility could be open to malicious abuse. Considering the latter point,
threat assessment critical control point (TACCP) evaluations are a relatively new
approach but work by the UK Food Standards Agency (https://www.food.gov.uk/)
and Centre for Protection of the National Infrastructure (CPNI) (http://www.cpni.
gov.uk/) has resulted in a helpful description of TACCP being published by the
British Standards Institute under the reference PAS-96 (http://www.food.gov.uk/
sites/default/files/pas96-2014-food-drink-protection-guide.pdf). In this type of con-
trol point assessment, a multi-disciplinary approach to protective security is applied
to food production.
Once again a process flow is developed but in this case from the perspective of
more than accidental or natural contamination. Experts from a number of disci-
plines (ingredient supply, security, personnel, engineering, marketing, distribution,
production, packaging, etc.) consider the processes that go into getting a product to
market and identify where there are weaknesses which could be exploited for finan-
cial or political gain. Many large scale suppliers, transportation companies and
wholesale/retail outlets will routinely take steps to prevent such risks to their busi-
nesses in any event although there is a tendency to focus on fraud and similar crimi-
nal activity.
Having identified vulnerabilities in the process flow, a mitigation plan needs to
be developed and decision makers have the options of:
• Treating the risk – taking action to remove the cause or take steps to prevent the
risk from maturing. This could be as simple as locking up key ingredients when
not in use to prevent loss or deliberate contamination or a more complex activity
involving supplier audits and background checks on staff to increase trust in
service provision.
• Tolerate the risk – the risk is accepted even though mitigating activities are not
likely to be effective. In general, this categorisation would be for low probability
events which cannot be managed. One example may be the risk of hurricane
damage to a farm during the growing season where these were 1 in 1000 year
events. Understanding the risk appetite of the stakeholders is critical in this
option.
• Transfer the risk – this is where the risk is changed by moving it to another
organisation. An example of this may be to move to planting seedlings rather
than seed to reduce the risk of germination failure.
• Terminate the risk – use another process. The risk of deterioration of soil quality
affecting production efficiency could be mitigated by switching to hydroponic
methods or planting an alternative crop not susceptible to an endemic disease.
Simple TACCP mitigation actions may be as simple as knowing the staff on the
farm, making sure they are appropriately supervised by trusted managers, opportu-
16 P. Robb

nities for mischief are minimised (e.g. lock up cleaning materials and essential
equipment when not in use by designated staff). However, with all of these assess-
ments and recommended actions it is important to ensure that a proportionate
response is maintained and that actions are prioritised appropriately.
Prioritisation of risk is essential. For example, although there are contingency
plans within UK Government Departments to deal with risks ranging from extreme
weather to a satellite falling to Earth and hitting the UK (https://www.gov.uk/gov-
ernment/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/61354/lead-government-­
department-march-2010.pdf), a structured approach to considering likelihood and
impact is sometimes helpful in deciding how to best use limited resources.

1.10 Risk Prioritisation

There are a number of methods of risk ranking (e.g. as discussed by the European
Food Safety Agency (EFSA) (van der Fels-Klerx et al. 2015)) ranging from a simple
grid approach to quantitative assessments considering data uncertainty and detailed
plant risk assessments for new species of plant/organism. A widespread, but simple,
approach to prioritisation is to give the probability of a risk maturing a value from 1
(unlikely) to 5 (very probable) and an impact score from 1 (nothing appreciable) to
5 (major impact). Multiplying likelihood and impact gives a score which can be
used to prioritise risks (Fig. 1.3)
This approach has the advantage of identifying those risks which can be tolerated
(green scale), those that should be treated if cost effective (pink/amber) and those
that must be treated or transferred (yellow/red).

Fig. 1.3 Risk scoring matrix (PAS96:2014)

1 Considering Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Plant and Food Biosecurity 17

More complex quantitative processes and expert elicitation methods can be used
to consider individual risks in significantly more detail which has benefits for policy
makers to reduce risk profiles at national or international level.
One of the tools considered in PlantFoodSec was the so called PESTLE approach.

1.11 PESTLE

The so called PESTLE methodology was initially developed as a marketing tool but
more recently has been expanded to assess impacts (with implicit risks) and to iden-
tify response triggers to complex scenario risks. The approach (or precursors) have
been used since the late 1960s and provide a framework in which Political,
Economic, Sociological, Technological, Legal and Environmental factors can be
reviewed in a structured manner to produce a comparative framework that can be
used to assess the relative management or impact priorities different scenarios.
There are some differences to the simple 1–5 risk/impact method described above
but once again a numerical score can be assigned for each PESTLE factor. The
benefit of the approach is that it is flexible but because it is subjective a sense check
should be included in the process to ensure it is not biased.
Experience has shown that one of the more effective approaches to scoring is to
use:
• negligible outcomes score zero,
• low/very low outcomes score 1,
• a medium one gives a 3 and
• a significant/major outcome has a score of 9.
A non-linear approach encourages the assessor to differentiate which can be
helpful in complex scenarios where key outcomes need to be identified.
The following describes a potential implementation of the approach. Examples
are given for information only and do no describe a particular threat or
vulnerability.

1.12 Political

There are several aspects to political risks and impacts ranging from whether
national policies exist to support management of a given type of incident to consid-
ering the national and international impacts that might arise.
As an example, a malicious attack conducted using human pathogens on plants
would require a multi-agency response with several agencies working in parallel. A
clearly criminal act would require forensic investigation, affected persons would
require treatment, guidance would need to be issued to consumers, epidemiology
conducted to trace affected produce and steps taken to protect consumers and
18 P. Robb

Table 1.1 Political criteria and scores – an example

Criteria Score
A minor incident dealt with by prompt action from local responders/officials/ 0
landowner.
A minor event requiring formal action but with limited impact outside of emergency 1
response community and key stakeholders/affected premises, easily managed.
Public is aware of the issue with Government(s) issuing targeted guidance to public 3
and stakeholders. Appreciable public and media interest with local responders being at
full stretch but coping.
National/international disquiet with significant public and media interest. Special 9
control measures are required with use of emergency legislation or other special
measures. A significant response to the situation is required (major resource
utilisation) as local/regional response mechanisms are overwhelmed.

growers from further exposure. Coordinating activities would be necessary at local,

regional, national and potentially international levels (Table 1.1). Understanding
and managing these interfaces requires careful planning and very importantly
exercising.
In general, existing food safety legislation, phytosanitary and health protection
measures at local, national and international levels could work closely with counter-­
terrorism and criminal investigation authorities although detailed briefing may be
needed to give context to any incident. Whilst there may be some debate as to which
agencies would take the lead (unless agreed in advance), existing coordination
mechanisms should enable decisions to be made promptly. The lead department
may also change as the scenario develops from crisis to recovery to restoration, with
the latter perhaps being a lengthy process of return to normality. Rating political
factors could therefore focus on mitigation and consequences.
Where the incident is self-limiting and no special powers need to be enacted, the
scores will be relatively low. However, as the E.coli 0104 outbreak in Germany
demonstrated (Caprioli et al. 2012; Appel et al. 2012) a significant but local chal-
lenge can quickly build up into an outbreak with serious international consequences.
One feature of the PESTLE approach is that regular reviews are required as inci-
dents progress. This can provide evidence of when the different phases of incident
can be considered as being over.

1.13 Economic

Economic impacts of an incident affecting food plants can result from direct conse-
quences or appear in the form of collateral damage. Direct impacts could include
losses due to seizure and destruction of infected crops or withdrawal of foods from
sale and remedial action costs (land remediation, enhanced biosecurity, treatment
costs, etc.). Collateral damage could include loss of reputation and therefore loss of
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
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mechanical piece worked by one such rod
only. Another specimen will have been
observed in the case of the pedestal for the
animated money. (See page 186.) Where
three or four pedals are necessary, they are Fig. 280.
generally enclosed in a square wooden
base, as in the case of the “Demon’s Head,” described at page 458.
Before quitting the subject of the tables used upon the stage, we
must not omit to say a few words as to what is called the “bellows”
table, though it is now comparatively little used. It was formerly (say
forty or fifty years ago) the fashion among conjurors to use tables
with drapery hanging to within a few inches of the floor. The table
being, say, two feet seven inches high, this gave room for a box-like
arrangement, of two feet deep, or thereabouts, within the body of
the table. In this box, which was open at the back, was hidden an
assistant, who worked the pistons, managed the traps, effected
necessary substitutions, etc., etc. Conjuring under such
circumstances was very easy work. In 1845, however, Robert-Houdin
gave his first public performance, and one of the earliest of his
reforms in the magic art was the suppression of the too suggestive
drapery, and the substitution of tables of light and elegant form,
allowing no possible room for the concealment of an assistant. A
reaction set in in favour of the new fashion, which has ever since
maintained its ground. The “bellows” table combines the apparent
simplicity of the undraped table with the internal capacity of the old-
fashioned draped article. There is a trick, formerly very popular as
the wind-up of an entertainment, which consists of the magical
disappearance of a youthful assistant, male or female. The subject of
the trick, generally dressed in a page’s costume, is made to mount
upon a table, and is covered by a wicker cone, which being almost
instantly removed, he or she has vanished. The table in this case is
draped to within a few inches of the ground, but to show that no
hidden receptacle is thereby concealed, the performer before
commencing the trick lifts up the table-cloth, and shows that the top
of the table is at most not more than two or three inches in
thickness. The drapery is then again allowed to fall into position, and
the trick proceeds. The table used in this trick is a bellows table; i.e.,
it has a double top, or rather two tops, one above the other. The
upper one is a fixture, with a large wooden trap (opening upwards)
in it, to allow of the passage of the person to be conjured away. The
under top is moveable, being in its normal condition pressed against
the upper one by the action of four spiral springs (one in each leg of
the table), but sinking down to nearly the depth of the cover under
the weight of a person stepping upon it, and thus affording the
requisite hiding-place, in which the person remains until the fall of
the curtain enables him or her to come forth with safety. Cloth is
nailed round three sides of the upper and lower boards, folding
between the two when closed, after the manner of the leather of a
bellows; and from this circumstance the table derives its name.
Small round tables (for the disappearance
of a rabbit, or the like) are sometimes made
on the same principle. The following will be
found a simple and convenient arrangement:—
Let the table be of the form shown in Fig. 281,
and two feet seven inches high. Let the
uppermost eight inches of the pillar be a plain
cylinder a a, an inch and a half in diameter.
Below this the pillar may increase in size, and
may be of an ornamental character. Take two
circular boards of deal or mahogany, each
eighteen to twenty inches in diameter, and
five-eighths of an inch thick. In the centre of
one of them, b, cut a circular hole an inch and
Fig. 281. three-quarters in diameter. This will form the
under side of the “bellows,” the object being to allow the board to
slide freely up and down on a a. The other board, which we will call
c, is screwed firmly on to the pillar, to form the top of the table. Next
take a strip of black alpaca, ten inches in width, and nail its opposite
edges round b and c, leaving a small space at one side to give
access to the interior. Tie a piece of cord elastic round the centre of
the alpaca, tightly enough to exercise a considerable degree of
tension. Fix such traps as may be desired in c, and glue over it a
fancy-patterned cloth, with a fringe or border hanging down nine or
ten inches round the sides. The performer, before executing any trick
with this table, may pointedly draw attention to the fact that it
contains no drawer or other place of concealment. In doing this (see
Fig. 282) he with one hand raises the lower board level with the
upper (the action of the elastic drawing in the alpaca between the
two), while with the other hand he raises the fringe, and shows,
apparently, that the top of the table is but a single board.
The top of every conjuring table should be
covered with woollen cloth, not only to prevent
the clatter which would be occasioned by the
placing of objects upon the bare wood, but to
conceal the presence of the traps and pistons.
The cloth used should, for this latter reason, be
of two colours, and of a tolerably intricate
pattern, as the outline of the traps will be
thereby rendered much less perceptible;
indeed, if the pattern of the cloth be a
favourable one for the purpose, the traps
should be, by gas-light, absolutely invisible.
The cloth should be glued over the top of the
table after the manner of a card-table; the
upper surface of the traps being first roughed
slightly, to make the glue adhere to the metal.
When the glue is thoroughly dry (but not until
Fig. 282.
then) the cloth may be cut along the outline of
the traps with a very sharp penknife, and small holes bored to allow
of the upward passage of the piston rods. As it is necessary in
placing a mechanical piece upon the table, to do so exactly over the
pistons, it is well to have a couple of wire points projecting upwards
a quarter of an inch or so from the surface of the table, in such
positions that if the piece of apparatus rests firmly against these
(which the performer can tell instantly by feel) it must necessarily be
in proper position.
Where “wrist” traps are used, the cloth need not be cut out
round the little oblong slab marked c in Figs. 263, 264, but the cloth
should be without glue over this particular spot, and for half an inch
round it on either side. The cloth will by this arrangement be found,
without cutting, to stretch sufficiently over c to allow of the proper
working of the trap.
Assuming that our stage appliances are complete, we will
proceed to—

The Rabbit Trick.—The performer comes forward to the audience,

and borrows a hat. He asks whether it is empty, and is answered
that it is; but he, notwithstanding, finds something in it, which the
owner is requested to take out. The article in question proves to be
an egg. No sooner has this been removed, than the performer
discovers that there is still something in the hat, and immediately
produces therefrom a live rabbit, quickly followed by a second. Not
knowing what other use to make of these, he proposes to pass one
of them into the other. The audience decide which is to be the
victim, and the performer, placing them side by side on the table,
proceeds to roll them together, when one is found to have vanished,
nobody knows when or how; but the theory is that it has been
swallowed by the remaining rabbit, to the (imaginary) increased
fatness of which the performer draws special attention.
Having thus passed one rabbit into the other, the next step is to
get it out again. To do this the performer calls for some bran, and
his assistant immediately brings forward, and places on a table or
chair, a huge glass goblet, twelve inches or thereabouts in height,
filled to the brim with that commodity. The performer takes the
borrowed hat, and (after showing that it is empty) places it mouth
upwards upon another table, so as to be at some considerable
distance from the goblet of bran. He then places a brass cover over
the glass, first, however, taking up and scattering a handful of the
bran to prove its genuineness. Taking the surviving rabbit, and
holding it by the ears above the covered goblet, he orders the one
swallowed to pass from it into the glass, at the same time stroking it
down with the disengaged hand, as though to facilitate the process.
He remarks, “You must excuse the comparative slowness of the
operation, ladies and gentlemen, but the fact is, the second rabbit
passes downwards in an impalpable powder, and, if I were not to
take sufficient time, we might find that a leg or an ear had been
omitted in the process, and the restored rabbit would be a cripple for
life. I think we are pretty safe by this time, however. Thank you,
Bunny; I need not trouble you any more.” So saying, he releases the
visible rabbit, and on taking off the cover the bran is found to have
disappeared, and the missing rabbit to have taken its place in the
goblet; while on turning over the borrowed hat the vanished bran
pours from it.
The reader who has duly followed our descriptions of the
appliances employed in the magic art will have little difficulty in
solving the riddle of this trick. The performer first comes forward
with an egg palmed in one hand, and with a small rabbit in an inner
breast-pocket on each side of his coat (see page 9). The first step is
the pretended finding of something (it is not stated what) in the hat.
The owner is requested to take it out, and while all eyes are
naturally turned to see what the article may prove to be, the
performer, without apparent intention, presses the mouth of the hat
with both hands to his breast, and tilts one of the rabbits into it. This
is next produced, and in placing it on the ground at his feet, the
performer brings the second rabbit in the same manner into the hat.
When he undertakes to pass the one rabbit into the other, he places
both upon the table which contains the rabbit-trap, and, standing
sideways to the audience, pushes the hindmost, under cover of the
other, through the trap. This particular rabbit is not again produced,
the rabbit in the “bran glass,” which has already been explained (see
page 383), being another as much like it as possible. It only remains
to explain how the bran comes into the borrowed hat. This is
effected by having a black alpaca bag filled with bran in one of the
profondes or under the waistcoat of the performer. This bag is
introduced into the hat after the manner of the goblets (see page
308), and the bran having been allowed to run out, the bag is rolled
up in the palm, and so removed, the bran remaining, to be produced
in due course.
It is obvious that the trick may be varied in many ways. The
following is an effective modification:—A rabbit having been
produced by natural or supernatural means, is placed on the
principal table (close to the hinder edge), and temporarily covered
with a borrowed hat, while the performer goes in search of a sheet
of paper, which when obtained, he spreads upon a small side table.
Lifting the hat slightly, he takes out the rabbit, and walking with it to
the side table, rolls it up in the paper, making a somewhat bulky
parcel. Coming forward with this to the audience, he turns toward
the principal table, and saying, “Now, ladies and gentlemen, if you
watch me very closely, you will see the rabbit fly out of the paper,
and back to the hat.” He crushes the paper together between his
hands, and tearing it, shows it empty, while on lifting the hat the
rabbit is again found safely ensconced beneath it.
The ingenious reader will readily guess that duplicate rabbits are
employed. One of them is placed under the hat, and remains there
throughout the trick. A second, of similar appearance, is placed in a
box or basket on the servante, immediately behind the hat. This box
has no lid, but is pushed until wanted just within the interior of the
table, the top of which prevents the rabbit making a premature
appearance. The performer, slightly raising the hat, as though to
take the rabbit from under it, lifts up this second rabbit, which the
spectators naturally believe to be the same which they have already
seen, and in apparently wrapping it in paper on the side table,
presses it, under cover of the paper, through the rabbit trap, and
screws up the ends of the paper (which should be rather stiff) in
such manner as to make it appear that the animal is still inside it.
The same trick may be performed with a pigeon with equally good
effect, and considerably less difficulty.

The Fairy Star.—This is one of the most telling of stage card

tricks. The performer, coming forward with a pack of cards, allows
six to be chosen. His assistant meanwhile brings forward and places
on a table a handsome gilt “star” on a stand. The performer,
collecting the chosen cards, places them in his pistol, and fires them
at the star, when, at the moment of the explosion, they are seen to
attach themselves one to each of its points, as in Fig. 283.

Fig. 283. Fig. 284.

 The principal point to be explained is the construction of the star.
Behind each “ray” is a moveable arm, working on a spring hinge at
about two inches’ distance from the point, and carrying a spring clip
at its outer end wherein to insert a card. (See Fig. 284, representing
a back view of the apparatus.) A card being placed in each of the
clips, the six arms, with the cards attached to them, are folded down
one by one behind the centre of the star, which is just large enough
to conceal them. Each card, as folded, holds down the one which
has preceded it. When the last card is folded down, the free end of a
moveable button or lever at the top of the pillar on which the star
rests is so turned as to press upon the arm which holds the card last
folded, and thus to keep it and the five other cards preceding it in
place. This button, however, is so arranged as to be instantly
withdrawn upon an upward movement being communicated to a
wire rod which passes up the centre of the pillar, and terminates in a
flat disc of metal at its foot. The apparatus, thus prepared, is placed
immediately over one of the pistons of the table. At the moment of
firing the pistol the cord of the piston is pulled. The piston rises,
pressing up the disc and wire rod, the button is withdrawn, and the
arms, being thereby released, revert to their natural position,
exhibiting a card upon each point of the star.
There are many little differences of detail between the “stars” of
rival manufacturers, but the foregoing may be taken to represent the
general principle of all. Some have the addition of a rose in the
centre, which opens simultaneously with the appearance of the
cards, and discloses a watch, borrowed a moment previously from
one of the spectators.
The mode of working the trick varies a good deal in the hands of
different performers. The most legitimate method is to “force” cards
corresponding to those already folded behind the star, and this
method has the advantage of allowing the star to be brought in and
placed upon the table before commencing the trick; and as it is not
again touched by the performer or his assistant, the appearance on
its points of (apparently) the identical cards just chosen seems really
miraculous.
 To be able, however, to force six cards in succession with ease
and certainty, demands a more than average degree of dexterity on
the part of the performer; and a “forcing pack” (see page 23) is
hardly available where more than three, or at most four cards have
to be forced. Various expedients have been adopted to get over this
difficulty. Some professors simply collect, or allow their assistant to
collect, the cards which have been drawn, and forthwith secretly
exchange them for the same number of others. These latter are laid
upon the table, and subsequently placed in the pistol, while the
originals are carried off by the assistant behind the scenes, and
there attached to the star, which is then for the first time brought
forward. Others, again, use what are called “longs and shorts”—i.e.,
two packs of cards, one of which has had a small portion shaved off
its length or breadth. The performer offers the uncut pack for the
company to draw from, letting each person retain his card, and then
secretly exchanging the pack for the shortened pack, he requests
each of the drawers (singly) to replace his card, and to shuffle freely.
The substituted pack being a shade smaller than the returned card,
the latter becomes a “long” card (see page 60); and therefore,
however well the cards are shuffled, the performer is able, with
absolute certainty, to cut at that particular card. “Here is your card,”
he remarks, “the knave of diamonds.” As he names the card, the
assistant, behind the scenes, takes the cue, and attaches a
corresponding card to the star. The card named is removed from the
pack and laid upon the table, in order to be subsequently placed in
the pistol, and a second drawn card is returned and shuffled with the
like result.
The star may, in the absence of a mechanical table, be placed on
the hand, the disc being pushed up by the fingers. Some stars have
a moveable stud at the side of the pillar, connected with the rod
within, to facilitate this mode of working the trick.

The Card Bouquet.—This is a trick very similar in effect to that last

described, though differing a little as to the manner of the
appearance of the cards. Six cards are drawn, and placed in a pistol,
as in the last case. A vase (apparently of
china, but really of tin, japanned),
containing a handsome bouquet, is placed
upon the table, and, at the instant of firing,
the six cards appear ranged in a semicircle
above the flowers in the bouquet. (See Fig.
285.) In this instance, the cards are
attached to the branches of a sort of fan, so
constructed as to open of its own accord,
unless forcibly kept closed. The cards
having been duly placed in position, this fan
is shut, and pressed downwards through a
narrow opening in the lower part of the Fig. 285.
vase, the pressure of whose sides keeps it,
for the time being, closed. When pressed upwards by the action of a
piston, the fan rises above the level of the flowers, and at the same
time opens and exhibits the six cards.
The vase is sometimes made with a second pedal, to produce a
second series of six cards. In this case twelve cards are drawn; six of
these first appear, and then, at the command of the performer, these
six suddenly change to the other six. This is effected as follows:—
The twelve cards are pasted back to back in couples. Each of the six
arms which hold the cards is so arranged as to be capable of being
turned half round (after the manner of the centre of the “watch
target”), in which position it is retained by a catch, flying back
however to its old position as soon as the catch is released. The six
arms are each turned round in this manner, bringing what are
naturally the hindmost cards in front. The movement of the first
lever exhibits these cards; that of the second lever releases the six
catches, when the arms instantly fly round and reveal the other six
cards, into which those first exhibited appear to have changed.

The Demon’s Head.—This is a large and effective piece of

apparatus, standing about twenty-eight inches from the table. It
consists of a grotesque papier maché head, representing that of a
demon or satyr, and painted according to taste. It is supported by an
ornamental brass column, about an inch in diameter, springing from
a velvet-covered base, nine inches square and four and a half high.
(See Fig. 286.) At the will of the operator, the head rolls its eyes and
opens its mouth, and is sometimes made available in this way to
answer questions; the rolling of the eyes being taken to signify a
negative, and the opening of the mouth an affirmative. In addition
to these accomplishments, the demon will indicate chosen cards in
the following manner: Five cards having been selected, are returned
to the pack, which, after being duly shuffled, is placed in the
demon’s mouth. The performer now orders him to produce the
chosen cards, when two of them fly from his mouth, and the other
two spring up between his horns.
 Fig. 286. Fig. 287.

The head owes its movements to the action of three different

sets of levers, each terminating in a disc or pedal immediately over a
circular hole in the under side of the base. The apparatus is so
placed upon the table that these openings correspond in position
with the same number of pistons. Fig. 287 is a general view of the
internal mechanism, the back of the head being removed (as in fact
it may be in the original) to give access thereto. Fig. 288 exhibits (as
seen from the rear) the action of the left-hand group of levers,
producing the movement of the eyes. When an upward pressure is
applied to the foot of the lever a, it causes the upper arm c d of the
elbow piece b c d to describe an arc of about a quarter of an inch
from left to right, thereby communicating a corresponding
movement to the pair of levers e e, working on the pivots f f; and,
as a necessary consequence, a reverse movement to the opposite
ends of such levers, on which are fixed the eyes g g. As soon as the
upward pressure is removed, the spring h, a spiral coil of fine brass
wire, draws back the levers e e, and with them the eyes, to their
original position. To produce a continuous rolling, the pressure of the
piston is applied and relaxed alternately, the effect to the spectator
being as if the figure looked first to the left and then to the right,
although as already explained, the active movement of the levers is
in the one direction only, the normal position of the eyes being in the
other direction.

Fig. 288. Fig. 289.

Fig. 289 shows the action of the second or middle group of

levers, serving to produce the opening of the mouth. The chin of the
figure consists of a solid block of wood i, working on a pivot j in each
cheek, and so counterweighted that its normal position is as in Fig.
289, thus keeping the mouth closed. When, however, the shaft k is
raised by pressure from below, the lever l rises with it, and
proportionately depresses the opposite end of the block i, thereby
opening the mouth. As soon as the pressure is removed, the block
falls back into its original position, and the mouth closes.
The third or right-hand set of levers is a little more complex in its
operation, inasmuch as it has to perform a double office, the
expulsion of two cards from the mouth, and the elevation of two
others at the
top of the
head. The
cards to be
shot from the
mouth are
placed
beforehand
(from the
front) in the
receptacle
Fig. 290. indicated in
Fig. 289 by
the letters m m, and a “plan” of
which is given in Fig. 290, and a
back view in Fig. 291. m m is a flat
piece of tin, its edges folded over
so as to form a receptacle or
platform just capable of holding
easily a couple of cards; n is a
spring, which, when the cards are
put in position, is “set” by being
drawn back into the notch of the
catch o. When an upward pressure
is exerted by the shaft p p on the Fig. 291.
elbow-piece q q q, the latter
pressing against r draws back this catch, and releases the spring,
which forthwith shoots out the two cards from the mouth. The other
two cards are inserted in the clip s (see Fig. 291), consisting of two
small pieces of sheet brass soldered to the end of the rod t, which
works up and down piston-wise in the tube u u. Within the tube is a
spiral spring which impels s upwards level with the top of the head,
across which a slit or opening is made to allow of the passage of the
cards. This portion of the apparatus is set by placing the two cards
in the clip, and then drawing down the piston-rod by the cross-piece
v, which is riveted thereto, and hitching such cross-piece under the
catch w. The upward movement of the shaft p, at the same time
that it draws back the catch o, also draws back the catch w, thereby
releasing v, and allowing the clip s and the two cards therein to
spring upward, and appear at the top of the head.
It is hardly necessary to remark that the cards chosen by the
audience are “forced” cards, of which duplicates have beforehand
been placed in the head.

The Magic Picture Frame.—The

performer, always borrowing, borrows this
time a lady’s handkerchief, and any small
articles—say a watch and a glove. These
latter he rolls up in the handkerchief, and
places the ball or bundle thus made upon
the table. He looks about in search of his
magic pistol, which is immediately
afterwards brought in by the assistant.
The performer places the handkerchief,
etc., in the pistol, the assistant meanwhile
bringing forward and placing on the table
a handsome picture-frame, mounted on a
stand. It contains no picture, the space
which the picture should occupy being
filled by a board covered with black cloth.
Fig. 292. The performer, standing at the farthest
available distance from the frame, takes
aim at it, and fires, when the borrowed articles are seen instantly to
attach themselves to the black background, whence, being removed,
they are handed to the owners for identification.
The picture-frame, which is
of the appearance shown in Fig.
292, and stands altogether
about two feet high, is backed
by a sort of wooden box, an
inch and a half in depth, and a
little smaller than the external
Fig. 293. Fig. 294.
measurement of the frame. The
inside of this box is covered with black cloth, and in fact forms the
true back of the frame; and it is upon this that the borrowed objects
are fastened by means of small sharp hooks, the back opening on
hinges to facilitate the doing so. An ordinary spring roller-blind, also
of black cloth, works up and down just behind the opening of the
frame. We have said an ordinary spring blind, but, in truth, the usual
check at the side is wanting, and the blind therefore, if drawn down,
instantly flies up again, unless held down from below. The blind
terminates at bottom in a square lath, five-eighths of an inch in
length by three-eighths in thickness, with a wire pin, half-an-inch in
length, projecting at right angles from its hinder side. The ends of
this lath, when the blind is drawn down, sink into two upright
grooves, one at each side of the frame, thereby keeping the latter
square, and the pin in a horizontal position. The catch a (an
enlarged view of which is shown in Figs. 293, 294) is now hooked
over the pin, as in Fig. 293, thus holding the blind down. A wire rod,
attached to this catch, passes down the column on which the frame
stands, and terminates in the usual disc or pedal at bottom. When
an upward pressure is applied to this, the catch assumes the
position shown in Fig. 294, thereby releasing the pin, and allowing
the blind to fly up. The blind is represented in Fig. 292 in the act of
flying up, but, in truth, its rise is so rapid as to be practically
invisible.
The sudden appearance of the articles in the frame is thus
sufficiently accounted for, but it remains to be explained in what
manner they were placed there, as they have (apparently) never
been removed from the sight of the audience. It will be remembered
that the smaller articles were rolled up in the handkerchief, which
was then placed on the table. In truth, what is placed upon the table
is a substitute handkerchief, similarly rolled up, while the original is
dropped on the servante, and carried off by the assistant when he
brings in the pistol. Having thus obtained possession of the articles,
he quickly places them in the frame, and draws down and fastens
the blind. This done, he closes the door at the back, and brings
forward the frame, taking care to place it immediately over one of
the pistons of the table. As the pistol is fired he pulls the cord, the
blind flies up, and the articles are revealed.

The Flying Watches and the Broken Plate.—This is a rather more

elaborate form of the trick last described. The performer collects
three or four watches from the company,
the assistant, meanwhile, being sent to
fetch a plate. On his return, the watches
are laid one by one on the plate, and he is
ordered to place them on the table. In
attempting to do so he trips and falls, the
watches being scattered in all directions,
and the plate being smashed to pieces.
The performer reprimands the offender
for his carelessness, and picking up the
watches, finds that they are injured in
various ways. After a momentary
hesitation, he hits on a way of repairing
the damage. Calling for his pistol, he
drops the battered watches and the
fragments of the plate into it, keeping all
down with a wad of newspaper. The
Fig. 295.
assistant now brings in the picture-frame,
as in the last trick, and the performer, taking good aim, fires at it. At
the instant of firing, the plate is seen restored in the centre of the
frame, with the borrowed watches encircling it. The performer
advances to remove and return them to the owners, but is (or
appears to be) thunderstruck at perceiving that the restoration is
incomplete, a large piece being missing from the plate. (See Fig.
295.) After a moment’s reflection, he discovers the cause of the
defect, for, looking about upon the stage, he finds and picks up a
fragment which he had overlooked when he put the rest in the
pistol, and which consequently is wanting in the restored plate. He
apologizes for the oversight, and proceeds to remedy it. Standing at
the furthest portion of the stage, he makes the motion of throwing
the recovered fragment towards the frame. It is seen to vanish from
his hand, and the plate at the same moment appears whole as at
first. The plate is removed, and with the restored watches handed to
the audience for examination, when the closest inspection fails to
discover any trace of fracture.
The first point to be explained is the mode in which the assistant
obtains possession of the borrowed watches, in order to place them
in the frame. The watches are collected by the performer in a
changing apparatus (say one of the changing caddies described at
page 348, or a drawer-box with a shallow inner drawer, as described
at page 346). In this is placed beforehand a like number of dummy
watches, and it is these latter which are placed on the plate, and
meet the pre-destined downfall. The apparatus being left apparently
empty, no suspicion is excited by the fact that the assistant, when
sent to fetch the pistol or the frame, carries it off as no longer
needed.
The sudden restoration of the piece apparently wanting in the
plate, though marvellous to the uninitiated, is really effected by very
simple means. The restored plate is throughout whole and
unbroken, but the effect of a piece wanting is produced by covering
one portion of its outer rim with an angular piece of black velvet or
alpaca, similar to that which covers the back of the frame. The
illusive effect is perfect. The frame is provided with two pedals, the
first releasing the black blind in front of the plate and watches, and
the second serving to withdraw the angular piece of cloth already
mentioned, and thus (apparently) effecting the complete restoration
of the plate. The pretended disappearance of the broken piece from
the hand at the moment of throwing is effected by taking it first in
the left hand, and thence apparently transferring it to the right by
the tourniquet, so that when the right hand is opened in the act of
throwing, it is naturally found empty.

The Magic Picture and the Chosen Cards.—We notice this trick in
this place as having a very close affinity, in effect, to the two last
described. It is, however, wholly independent of stage appliances,
and is equally well adapted for the drawing-room as for the platform.
The performer, taking an ordinary pack of cards, allows three to be
chosen. These are returned to the pack, and the pack shuffled. He
then brings forward a small picture in a frame, and measuring, say,
fourteen inches by twelve. Having exhibited both front and back, he
entrusts the picture to a spectator to hold, and taking the pack of
cards, throws them smartly against the glass, when in an instant the
three chosen cards appear in front of the picture, but under the
glass. The back of the frame is next taken out, and picture, back,
frame, and glass are separately handed for inspection; but the
closest scrutiny of the audience cannot discover any mechanism or
special arrangement to account for the effect above described.
The reader will already have anticipated that the three cards are
“forced.” The picture is on the principle of the frames last above
described, with a slight variation. There are, in fact, two pictures
exactly alike. One of these is pasted upon the wooden back of the
frame, and upon this are fastened duplicates of the cards to be
chosen. The second picture is mounted on cloth, and works on a
spring roller artfully concealed in the upper part of the frame, taking,
in fact, the place of the black blind in the other frames. This is kept
down by a pin at the lower side of the frame, and is so arranged as
to be released by the smallest pressure against the glass. The pack
of cards, smartly thrown, supplies this pressure. The foremost
picture flies up, and reveals apparently the same, but really a similar
picture, with the chosen cards between it and the glass.
 The Magic Portfolio.—The performer comes forward with a large
portfolio, such as is used to contain engravings, and barely an inch
in thickness. This he places sideways to the audience, upon a stand
or trestle, thereby raising it to a convenient height, and at the same
time negativing the possibility of its having any communication with
the floor of the stage. Standing behind it, he proceeds to take from
it a number of large engravings, then a couple of lady’s bonnets of
the latest fashion, and showing no sign of creasing or compression.
These are followed by a large bird-cage, containing a number of
living birds; and finally by three brass stew-pans, one containing
haricot beans; a second, water; and a third, fire. Other articles are
sometimes produced, but the above are those most generally used.
This really surprising trick is performed by the simplest possible
means. The bonnets and the bird-cage are made to fold nearly flat,
on the principle of the reticules and bird-cages described at pages
309 and 311. In this flattened condition they are placed in the
portfolio, which being turned sideways to the audience, and the
performer standing behind it, the side which is towards the
spectators naturally forms a cover for the operator, and gives him
every facility for developing the folded articles. The stew-pans,
however, cannot be made thus compressible, and consequently a
different plan is adopted in respect of them. These have india-rubber
covers, after the manner of the bowls of gold-fish, and, like them,
are concealed about the person of the performer, who, producing
them under cover of the portfolio, appears to take them out of it.
The pan for the fire contains a little spirits of wine, which the
performer, still behind the portfolio, ignites with a wax match before
producing this particular pan.
Where it is desired to produce a child, or other specially bulky
object, the portfolio is for a moment placed on the table, behind
which such object is placed. The object having been introduced into
the portfolio, the latter is then transferred to the proper stand.
 The Glove Column.—This is an ornamental column, sometimes of
brass, sometimes of glass, on a massive foot and standing about two
and a half feet high. It is surmounted by a metal cup, about an inch
and a half in depth and two inches in diameter.
The mode of using the column is as follows:—Three or four rings
are borrowed, also a white kid glove, and the whole are placed in
the magic pistol. The column is then brought in, and placed upon
the table. The magician takes aim at it, and fires. At the instant of
his doing so, the glove, expanded as though containing a living
hand, appears at the top of the pillar, with one of the borrowed rings
on each of its fingers.
The glove and rings, as the reader will probably conjecture, are
exchanged at an early period of the trick. There are plenty of ways
of effecting this exchange. Perhaps, as regards the rings, the
expedient of having them collected on the performer’s wand by the
assistant (see page 399) is as good as any. The assistant, having
thus gained possession of the borrowed articles, arranges them as
follows:—The glove is placed upon the end of a tube, which runs
through the whole length of the column, terminating just within the
cup at top, and is kept in position by an india-rubber ring slipped
over it, and holding it tight to the tube. One of the borrowed rings is
now placed over each of the fingers, and the glove thus prepared is
pressed down into the cup, so as not to show above the rim. The
column is now placed upon the table in such manner that the lower
opening of the tube shall correspond with a small hole in the table,
communicating by means of an india-rubber tube with a hollow ball
of the same material, filled with air, and so placed as to be within
reach of the hand or foot of the assistant. At the moment of firing a
smart pressure is applied to the ball, thus causing a rush of air
through the tube, and inflating the glove, which instantly springs up
into a perpendicular position, with the rings upon it. The articles are
now returned to the owners, and are identified as those which were
borrowed.
 Some columns have a large hollow black or gilt ball at the top,
divided vertically into two parts, and so arranged as to fall apart at
the moment of the inflation of the glove.

The Vanishing Pocket Handkerchief, found in a Candle.—This was a

favourite trick of Robert-Houdin, by whom, we believe, it was
invented. The performer borrows a lady’s handkerchief, drawing
particular attention to the fact that he takes the first handkerchief
which may be offered, and that it is wholly free from preparation.
Fixing upon some gentleman among the audience, he asks him if he
thinks he could set fire to the handkerchief. The person addressed
naturally expresses his belief that he could. The performer ventures
to doubt it, and at once fetches a lighted candle to enable him to try
the experiment, meanwhile spreading the borrowed handkerchief
over the top of a small round table, or guéridon, where it remains in
full view of the spectators, showing clearly that it is not tampered
with in any way. Returning with the candle, the performer hands it to
the gentleman, and requests him to go and set fire to the
handkerchief. Hardly, however, has he taken the first step to do so,
when the handkerchief suddenly vanishes, its disappearance being
so rapid that the spectators cannot even decide in which direction it
travelled. The performer accuses the gentleman, who is still holding
the candlestick, of having the handkerchief about him. This he
naturally denies. The professor insists, and after keeping up the
dispute as long as the audience are amused by it, offers to prove his
assertion, and taking the candle from the candlestick, breaks it in
half, and produces from it the borrowed handkerchief, which is
immediately identified by the owner.
This capital trick requires the aid of a special table. The top is
thin, and without fringe or ornament of any kind, allowing no
apparent space for the concealment of even the smallest article. The
centre pillar, however, is a hollow tube, and it is into this that the
handkerchief is made to vanish. The first step in the trick is to
exchange the handkerchief for a substitute. (See page 240.) This
substitute is spread over the top of the table. The real handkerchief
the performer carries with him when he leaves the stage under the
pretence of fetching the candle, and utilizes his momentary absence
in placing it inside the candle, which is hollow, and of the description
mentioned at page 251. When the gentleman advances to set fire to
the handkerchief, the pulling of a string by the assistant causes a clip
to rise up in the centre of the table, and nip the middle of the
handkerchief, which is instantly drawn down within the tube through
a small trap at its upper extremity.

The Sphinx.—Few tricks have of late years caused so great a

sensation as this now well-known illusion, which was first introduced
to the London public by the late Colonel Stodare, in 1865. We cannot
better preface the explanation of the trick than by quoting a portion
of the Times notice on the subject, of October 19, 1865:—
“... Most intricate is the problem proposed by Colonel Stodare,
when, in addition to his admirable feats of ventriloquism and
legerdemain, he presents to his patrons a novel illusion called the
‘Sphinx.’ Placing upon an uncovered table a chest similar in size to
the cases commonly occupied by stuffed dogs or foxes, he removes
the side facing the spectators, and reveals a head attired after the
fashion of an Egyptian Sphinx. To avoid the suspicion of
ventriloquism, he retires to a distance from the figure supposed to
be too great for the practice of that art, taking his position on the
borderline of the stalls and the area, while the chest is on the stage.
Thus stationed, he calls upon the Sphinx to open its eyes, which it
does—to smile, which it does also, though the habitual expression of
its countenance is most melancholy, and to make a speech, which it
does also, this being the miraculous part of the exhibition. Not only
with perspicuity, but with something like eloquence, does it utter
some twenty lines of verse; and while its countenance is animated
and expressive, the movement of the lips, in which there is nothing
mechanical, exactly corresponds to the sounds articulated.
“This is certainly one of the most extraordinary illusions ever
presented to the public. That the speech is spoken by a human voice
there is no doubt; but how is a head to be contrived which, being
detached from anything like a body, confined in a case, which it
completely fills, and placed on a bare-legged table, will accompany a
speech, that apparently proceeds from its lips, with a strictly
appropriate movement of the mouth, and a play of the countenance
that is the reverse of mechanical? Eels, as we all know, can wriggle
about after they have been chopped into half-a-dozen pieces; but a
head that, like that of the Physician Douban, in the Arabian tales,
pursues its eloquence after it has been severed from its body,
scarcely comes within the reach of possibilities; unless, indeed, the
old-fashioned assertion that ‘King Charles walked and talked half-an-
hour after his head was cut off,’ is to be received, not as an
illustration of defective punctuation, but as a positive historical
statement.
“Davus might have solved the ‘Anthropoglossus,’ but Colonel
Stodare presents us with a Sphinx that is really worthy of an
Œdipus.”
For the benefit of those who have never seen this illusion
presented upon the stage, we will describe its effect a little more
minutely. The Sphinx is always made a separate portion of the
entertainment, as it is necessary to lower the curtain for a few
moments before and after its appearance, in order to arrange and
remove the necessary preparations. The curtain rises, and reveals a
round or oval table, supported upon three slender legs, and utterly
devoid of drapery. This stands in a curtained recess of ten or twelve
feet square, open on the side towards the audience. The performer
comes forward bearing a cloth-covered box, fifteen to twenty inches
square, and places it upon the table already mentioned. He then
unlocks the box, the front of which drops down, so as to give a
perfect view of the interior, in which is seen a head of Egyptian
fashion, and coloured in perfect imitation of life. (See Frontispiece.)
The performer now retires to a position in the very midst of the
audience, and raising his wand, says in a tone of command, “Sphinx,
awake!” The Sphinx slowly opens its eyes, looking first to the front
with a strong gaze; then, as if gradually gaining consciousness, to
the one side and the other, the head moving slightly with the eyes.
Questions are put by the performer to the head, and are answered
by it, the play of the mouth and features being in perfect harmony
with the sounds uttered. Finally, in answer to a query of the
operator, the Sphinx declaims a neatly turned oracle in verse. This
concludes the exhibition, and the performer closes the box. Should
the audience call for an encore, the performer addresses them to the
following or some similar effect:—“Ladies and gentlemen, I am glad
that the Sphinx has afforded you satisfaction, and I should be only
too pleased to be able to indulge the desire which you kindly testify
of seeing it again. Unfortunately, this is not possible. The charm by
which I am enabled, as you have seen, to revivify for a space the
ashes of an ancient Egyptian, who lived and died some centuries
ago, lasts but for fifteen minutes. That time has now expired, and
the head which has astonished you with its mysterious eloquence
has again returned to its original dust.” As he speaks the last words,
he again opens the box, and the head is found to have disappeared,
leaving in its place a handful of ashes.

Fig. 296. Fig. 297.

This singular illusion depends upon the well-known principle,

common to optics as to mechanics, that “the angle of reflection is
equal to the angle of incidence.” Thus, if a person standing at the
point a, in Fig. 296, look into a mirror placed in the position
indicated by the line b c, he will see reflected, not himself, but
whatever object may be placed at the point d. By an ingenious
application of this principle a looking-glass may be used to conceal a
given object behind it, while at the same time an image reflected in
the glass may be made to represent what would be presumably seen
if no glass were there, and thus prevent the presence of the mirror
from being suspected. This is the secret of the Sphinx. The table, as
already mentioned, has three legs, one in front, and one at each
side. Between these legs the spectator sees apparently the curtains
at the back of the recess, but really a reflection of the curtains at the
sides. The space between the middle leg and that on either side is
occupied by pieces of looking-glass (see Fig. 297, which represents a
ground plan of the arrangement), extending from a to b, and a to c.
The glass extends quite down to the floor, which is covered with
cloth of the same material and colour as the surrounding curtains.
The spectators, therefore, looking towards the table, see above it
the curtains at the back, and below it the reflection of the curtains at
the sides; which, however, if the relative angles are properly
arranged, appears to be simply the continuation or lower portion of
the curtains at the back. The illusion is perfect, and the spectator,
from the position assigned to him, cannot possibly discover, by the
evidence of his senses, that he is looking at any other than an
ordinary bare-legged table, with the background visible in the usual
way.
The rest is a very simple matter. The person who is to represent
the Sphinx is beforehand placed, duly attired, underneath the table.
There is a trap in the table through which he can pass his head at
the proper moment. This trap is a round piece of wood, covered to
match the surface of the table, and working on a hinge on the side
nearest to the audience. It has no spring, but is kept closed by
means of a button on the opposite side, and when released hangs
down perpendicularly. It must be large enough to allow the passage
of the somewhat elaborate headpiece of the Sphinx, and would
therefore leave an open space visible round the neck. This difficulty
is met by the expedient of having a wooden collar, whose upper
surface is a facsimile in size and pattern of the trap, fastened round
the neck of the representative of the Sphinx. When he lifts his head
up through the trap, this collar exactly fills the opening, and thus
shows no break in the surface of the table. The box is bottomless,
and when brought forward by the performer is empty. A little caution
has to be observed in placing it upon the table, for, if the performer
were to approach the table from the side, his legs would be reflected
in the glass, and would thereby betray the secret. He must therefore
make his appearance from some quarter outside of the curtained
recess, and advance to a position well in front of, and at some little
distance from the table, when, by moving in a straight line from the
audience towards the middle leg a, he prevents this inconvenient
reflection. The placing the box upon the table, and the unlocking it,
allow time for the representative of the Sphinx to get his head into
position within it. This done, the box is opened, and the rest
depends on the dramatic talent of the performer and his assistant.
The performance being concluded, the box is again locked, and the
head withdrawn, a handful of ashes being introduced on the trap in
its stead.
The angle at which the two mirrors should be set cannot be
determined absolutely, but will vary according to the distance and
position of the surrounding drapery.
Some performers use a shawl or a screen of cardboard in place
of the box, but we doubt whether any method is more effective than
that above described.
The ghastly illusion of the so-called “Decapitated Head,” which
drew crowds to the Polytechnic some few years since, was merely
the “Sphinx” in a less pleasant form.

The Cabinet of Proteus.—This is another adaptation of the

principle on which the Sphinx illusion is founded. It is the joint
invention of Messrs. Pepper and Tobin, by whom it was patented in
1865. The first steps towards a patent for the Sphinx were also
taken in the same year, but the
latter invention never proceeded
beyond provisional protection. The
Cabinet of Proteus is a wooden
closet, seven to eight feet in height
by four or five feet square,
supported on short legs, so as to
exclude the idea of any
communication with the floor. (See
Fig. 298.) It has folding doors, and
an upright pillar extends from top
to bottom of the interior, at about
the centre of the cabinet. At the top
of this pillar, in front, is fixed a
lamp, so that the whole of the
interior is brightly illuminated. Fig. 298.
The cabinet may be used
in various ways. One of the
most striking is as follows:—
The folding doors are opened,
disclosing the interior perfectly
empty. (See Fig. 299.) The
exhibitor directs his assistant
to walk into the cabinet. He
does so, and the doors are
closed. Meanwhile, a couple of
gentlemen, selected by the
audience, are invited to stand
behind or beside the cabinet,
and see that no one obtains
ingress or egress by any secret
opening. Notwithstanding
Fig. 299.
these precautions, when the
doors are again opened, the
assistant is found to have vanished, and another person, different in
dress, in stature, and in complexion, is found in his place. This
person steps forth, makes his bow, and retires. Again the cabinet,
now empty, is closed, and after an interval of a few moments, again
opened. This time a human skeleton is found to occupy the vacant
space. This ghastly object having been removed, and the door
having been once more closed and opened, another person, say a
lady, appears. This person having retired, the doors are again
closed; and when they are again opened, the person who first
entered is once more found within. A committee from the audience
are now invited to examine the cabinet within and without, out all
their scrutiny cannot detect any hidden space, even sufficient to
conceal a mouse.
An examination of Fig. 300, representing
a ground plan of the cabinet, will make plain
the seeming mystery. A moveable flap a b,
working on hinges at b, extends from top to
bottom of each side, resting when thrown
open against the post c in the middle, and
thus enclosing a triangular space at the back
of the cabinet. The outer surfaces of these
flaps (i.e., the surfaces exposed when they Fig. 300.
are folded back against the sides of the cabinet) are, like the rest of
the interior, covered with wall paper, of a crimson or other dark
colour. The opposite sides of the flaps are of looking-glass, and
when the flaps are folded back against the posts, reflect the surfaces
against which they previously rested, and which are covered with
paper of the same pattern as the rest. The effect to the eye of the
spectator is that of a perfectly empty chamber, though, as we have
seen, there is in reality an enclosed triangular space behind the post.
This is capable of containing two or three persons, and here it is that
the persons and things intended to appear in succession are
concealed. The assistant, entering in sight of the audience, changes
places, as soon as the door is closed, with one of the other persons.
This person having retired, and the door being again closed, those
who are still within place the skeleton in position in front of the post,
and again retire to their hiding-place. When all the rest have
appeared, the person who first entered presses the flaps against the
sides of the cabinet, against which they are retained by a spring lock
on each side, and the public may then safely be admitted, as their
closest inspection cannot possibly discover the secret.

The Indian Basket Trick.—This is another of the sensational feats

identified with the name of Colonel Stodare, and is imitated from a
similar illusion performed by the Indian conjurors. It is not a
pleasant trick to witness, but, like the “Decapitated Head,” it drew
immense crowds, its fictitious horror being apparently its chief
attraction. Its effect, as the trick was originally presented by
Stodare, is as follows:—A large oblong basket, say five feet by two,
and as deep as wide, is brought in, and placed on a low stand or
bench, so as to be raised clear of the stage. The performer comes
forward with a drawn sword in his right hand, and leading with the
other hand a young lady, dressed in a closely-fitting robe of black
velvet. Reproaching her upon some pretended ground of complaint,
he declares that she must be punished, and forthwith begins to
blindfold her eyes. She simulates terror, begging for mercy, and
finally escaping from him, runs off the stage. He follows her, and
instantly reappears, dragging her by the wrist. Regardless of her
sobs and cries, he compels her to enter the basket, in which she lies
down, and the lid is closed. Simulating an access of fury, he thrusts
the sword through the basket (from the front) in various places.
Piercing screams are heard from the interior, and the sword when
withdrawn is seen to be red with blood. The screams gradually
subside, and all is still. A thrill of horror runs through the audience,
who are half inclined to call in the police, and hand over the
professor to the nearest magistrate. For a moment there is a pause,
and then the performer, calmly wiping the bloody sword on a white
pocket-handkerchief, says, “Ladies and gentlemen, I fear you
imagine that I have hurt the lady who was the subject of this
experiment. Pray disabuse yourselves of such an idea. She had
disobeyed me, and I therefore determined to punish her by giving
her a little fright; but nothing more. The fact is, she had left the
basket some time before I thrust the sword into it. You don’t believe
me, I see. Allow me to show you, in the first place, that the basket is
empty.” He turns over the basket accordingly, and shows that the
lady has vanished. “Should you desire further proof, the lady will
answer for herself.” The lady at this moment comes forward from a
different portion of the room, and having made her bow, retires.
This startling illusion is performed as follows:—To begin with,
there are two ladies employed, in figure and general appearance as
nearly alike as possible. Their dress is also exactly similar. The little
dramatic scene with which the trick commences is designed to
impress upon the audience the features of the lady who first
appears. When she is blindfolded, she, as already mentioned, runs
off the stage. The performer runs after her, and apparently bringing
her back, really brings back in her place the second lady, who is
standing in readiness, blindfolded in precisely the same way, behind
the scenes. As the bandage covers the greater part of her features,
there is little fear of the spectators detecting the substitution that
has taken place. The substitute lady now enters the basket, where
she lies, compressing herself into as small a compass as possible,
along the back. Knowing the position which she occupies, it is not a
very difficult matter for the operator so to direct the thrusts of the
sword as to avoid any risk of injuring her. The chief thing to be
attended to for this purpose is to thrust always in an upward
direction. The appearance of blood on the sword may be produced
either by the lady in the basket drawing along the blade, as it is
withdrawn after each thrust, a sponge saturated with some crimson
fluid, or by a mechanical arrangement in the hilt, causing the
supposed blood, on pressure, to trickle down the blade.
 Fig. 301.

The only point that remains to be explained is the difficulty

which will probably already have suggested itself to the reader, viz.,
“How does the performer manage to show the basket empty at the
close of the trick?” Simply by having the basket made on the
principle of the “inexhaustible box,” described at page 391. The
performer takes care to tilt the basket over to the front before he
raises the lid. This leaves the lady lying on the true bottom of the
basket (see Fig. 302), while a moveable flap, fixed at right angles to
the bottom, and lying in its normal position flat against the front of
the basket, for the time being represents the bottom to the eyes of
the audience. While the basket is thus shown apparently empty, the
lady who first appeared in the trick comes forward, and is
immediately recognized by the audience; and as they are fully
persuaded that she was the person placed in the basket, the
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