Chapter V

Switching and Multiplexing

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5.1 Switching Concept and Types
• A network is a set of connected device.
• Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem of how to connect
them to make one to one communication possible.
• One possible solution is to make a point to point connection between each
pair of devices or between a central device and every other device.
• These methods however are impractical and wasteful when applied to a very
large networks.
• The number and length of links require too much infrastructure to be cost
efficient, the majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
• A better solution is switching.
• A switch network consists of a series of interlinked nodes called switches.
• Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two
or more devices linked to the switch.
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3
• Traditionally there are three methods of switching
• Circuit switching
• Packet switching and
• Message switching
Circuit Switched Networks
• A circuit switched network consists a set of switched connected by
physical links.
• A connection between the two stations is a dedicated path made of one or
more links.
• However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel in each link.
• Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
• Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer
• The actual communication in circuit switch network required three
phases: connection setup, data transfer , and connection teardown.
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Multistage Switch/one line is allocated for one commn they only reserved
up to end other connection cant be used
E.g.stage 1 to stage 3 there is two pass link they reserved for only 1 commn befor start
the commn.the commn b/n stage1 to stage 2,the link b/n stage 2 to stage 3 is free but
no other commn use it b/c they already reserved for this commn./
Setup Phase
• Before the two parties or multiple parties can communicate , a dedicated
circuit needs to be established.
• The end systems are normally connected through dedicated lines to the
switches, so connection set up means creating a dedicated channel.
Data transfer phase
• After the establishment of the dedicated circuit(channel), the two parties
can transfer data.
Teardown Phase
• When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each
switch to release the resources.
Efficiency
• Circuit switch network is not as efficient as the other two types of
network because resources are allocated during the entire duration of the
connection
• These resources are unavailable to other connections
• Allowing resources to be dedicated means that other connections are
deprived
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Delay
• Although circuit switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in this type of network is
minimal.
• During data transfer the data aren’t delayed at each switch; the resources are allocated for the
duration of the connection.
• There is no waiting time at each switch.
• The total delay is due to the time needed to create the connection , transfer data, and disconnect the
circuit.
Packet Switch Network
• In data communication, we need to send messages from one end system to another.
• If the message is going to pass through a packet switched network, it needs to be divided into packets
of fixed or variable size.
• The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocols.
• In packet switching,
• there is no resource allocation for a packet
• There is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and
• there is no scheduled processing time for each packet.
• Resources are allocated on demand

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• The allocation is done on the first come first served basis.
• The packet switch networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless
network
• The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch)
doesn’t keep information about the connection state
• There is no setup or teardown phases
• Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or
destination
Routing Table
• If there are no setup or tear down phases, the packets are routed to their
destination by the routing table at the Switch or router.
• The destination address and the corresponding forwarding output ports
are recorded in the routing tables
Efficiency
• The efficiency of packet switch network is better than that of circuit
switched network; resources are allocated only when there are packets to
be transferred
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Delay
• There may be greater delay in packet switch network that the circuit
switch network
• Although there are no setup and teardown phase, each packet may
experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded
Message switching
• Message (block data) is stored in a switching node and then forwarded
later one hop at a time
• Message received in its entirety , inspected for error, and then forwarded
• Need “LARGE” storage space to store data in each node
Ex. Telegraph, military applications

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 Multiplexing Concepts and Types
• Multiplexing is the name given to techniques, which allow more
than one message to be transferred via the same communication channel.

• The channel in this context could be a transmission line, e.g. a twisted pair
or co-axial cable, a radio system or a fibre optic system etc.

•A channel will offer a specified bandwidth, which is available for

a time t, where t may  .

• Thus, with reference to the channel there are 2 ‘degrees of freedom’, i.e.
bandwidth or frequency and time.

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 Multiplexing

CHANNEL
BL BH freq

BH

Multiplexing is a technique which allows k

users to occupy the
channel for the duration in time that the
channel is available.

BL
Frequency

Time t

The signal is characterised by amplitude, frequency, phase and time.

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 Multiplexing
• Variousmultiplexing methods are possible in terms of the channel
bandwidth and time, and the signal, in particular the frequency, phase or
time. The two basic methods are:
1) Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM
•FDM is derived from AM techniques in which the signals occupy the
same physical ‘line’ but in different frequency bands.
•Each signal occupies its own specific band of frequencies all the time,
i.e. the messages share the channel bandwidth.
2) Time Division Multiplexing TDM

TDM is derived from sampling techniques in which messages occupy all

the channel bandwidth but for short time intervals of time, i.e. the
messages share the channel time.
Ethernet
Ethernet is a predominant LAN
technology in the world.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

maintains the functional protocols and services for the TCP/IP protocol suite
in the upper layers.

However, the functional protocols and

services at the OSI Data Link layer and Physical layer are described by
various engineering organizations (IEEE, ANSI, ITU) or by private
companies (proprietary protocols).

The foundation for Ethernet technology was

first established in 1970 with a program called Alohanet

Alohanet was a digital radio network 13

Ethernet
• Alohanet required all stations to follow a protocol in which an
unacknowledged transmission required re-transmitting after a short period of
waiting

The techniques for using a shared medium

in this way were later applied to wired technology in the form of Ethernet

The first version of Ethernet incorporated a

media access method known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD).

CSMA/CD managed the problems that

result when multiple devices attempt to communicate over a shared physical
medium.
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Ethernet
Characteristics of Ethernet in its early years
The first versions of Ethernet used coaxial cable
to connect computers in a bus topology. Each computer was directly connected to
the backbone.
These early versions of Ethernet were known as:
Thicknet(10BASE5): cabling distances of up
to 500 meters before the signal required a repeater
Thinnet(10BASE2): was smaller in diameter
and more flexible than Thicknet and allowed for cabling distances of 185 meters.
The evolved once are:
cable(coaxial-to-UTP)
Media Access(CSMA-to-CSMA/CD )
Physical Topology(Bus-to-Star)

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Ethernet
Ethernet Beyond the LAN:
The increased cabling distances enabled by the
use of fiber-optic cable in Ethernet-based networks has resulted in a blurring of
the distinction between LANs and WANs.
 Ethernet was initially limited to LAN cable
systems within single buildings, and then extended to between buildings. It can
now be applied across a city in what is known as a Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN)

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Ethernet
Physical and Data Link Features of Ethernet:
Standards and Implementation
In 1985, the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standards committee
for Local and Metropolitan Networks published standards for
LANs. These standards start with the number 802. The standard for
Ethernet is 802.3.

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Ethernet
Physical and Data Link Features of Ethernet:
Standards and Implementation
Ethernet operates in the lower two layers of the
OSI model (L1 & L2)
Ethernet L1 performs a key role in the
communication that takes place between devices, but each of its functions has
limitations
Ethernet at Layer 2 addresses these limitations

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Ethernet
Physical and Data Link Features of Ethernet:
Logical Link Control-Connecting to upper layers
Ethernet separates the functions of the Data
Link layer into two distinct sub-layers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer
and the Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer
The use of these sub-layers contributes
significantly to compatibility between diverse end devices
LLC is implemented in software, and its
implementation is independent of the physical equipment
In a computer, the LLC can be considered the
driver software for the Network Interface Card (NIC). The NIC driver is a
program that interacts directly with the hardware on the NIC to pass the data
between the media and the Media Access Control sub-layer
The IEEE 802.2 standard
describes the
LLC sub-layer functions
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Ethernet
Physical and Data Link Features of Ethernet:
MAC-Getting Data to the Media
MAC is the lower Ethernet sublayer of L2.
MAC is implemented by hardware, typically in the computer Network Interface
Card (NIC).
The Ethernet MAC sublayer has two primary
responsibilities:
Data Encapsulation
Media Access Control

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Ethernet
Physical and Data Link Features of Ethernet:
Physical Implementation of Ethernet:
Ethernet specifies and implements
encoding and decoding schemes that enable frame bits to be carried as signals
across the media.
Ethernet devices make use of a broad range of
cable and connector specifications
UTP copper cables and optical fiber to
interconnect network devices via intermediary devices such as hubs and
switches. With all of the various media types that Ethernet supports
The introduction of Gigabit Ethernet has
extended the original LAN technology to distances that make Ethernet a MAN
and WAN standard.
Today, the same protocol that transported data
at 3 Mbps can carry data at 10 Gbps
The success of Ethernet is due to the
following factors:
Simplicity and ease of maintenance 21
Ethernet
MAC in Ethernet: Functions & Characteristics
Ethernet uses CSMA/CD to detect and handle
collisions and manage the resumption of communications
The Process:
Carrier Sense: Listen before transmitting
If a device detects a signal from another
device, it will wait for a specified amount of time before attempting to
transmit.
Multi-access :several Ethernet nodes can
monitor traffic, or access the media, simultaneously.
Collision Detection: refers to the way nodes
respond to a collision
Jam Signal and Random Backoff
This jamming signal is used to notify the
other devices of a collision, so that they will invoke a backoff algorithm
Backoff algorithm causes all devices to
stop transmitting for a random amount of time, which allows the collision 22
signals to subside
CSMA/CD process

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Ethernet
Ethernet Physical Layer: 10/100/1000Mbps & Future Options
The differences between standard
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet
occur at the Physical layer

Currently Four data rates are

defined by IEEE 802.3 for operation over optical fiber and twisted-
pair cables:
10 Mbps - 10Base-T Ethernet
100 Mbps - Fast Ethernet
1000 Mbps - Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gbps - 10 Gigabit Ethernet

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Ethernet
Ethernet Physical Layer: 10/100/1000Mbps & Future Options

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Wireless network
• What is a wireless network?
– A technology that enables two or more entities to communicate without
network cabling
• Any application currently used on a traditional wired network can be used
on a wireless network.
• New applications may be available or can be developed to take advantage
of wireless, such as Wireless PDA access to a card catalog.
Why Wireless
• Mobility: Wireless LAN systems can provide LAN users with access to
real-time information anywhere in their organization. This mobility
supports productivity and service opportunities not possible with wired
networks.
 Why Wireless?
• Installation Speed and Simplicity: Installing a wireless LAN system
can be fast and easy and can eliminate the need to pull cable through
walls and ceilings.
• Reduced Cost-of-Ownership: While the initial investment required
for wireless LAN hardware can be higher than the cost of wired LAN
hardware, overall installation expenses and life-cycle costs can be
significantly lower.
• Scalability: Wireless LAN systems can be configured in a variety of
topologies to meet the needs of specific applications and installations.
Configurations are easily changed and range from peer-to-peer
networks suitable for a small number of users to full infrastructure
networks of thousands of users that enable roaming over a broad area.
Wireless Networks
Comparing WLAN to a LAN:
WLANs connect clients to the network
through a wireless access point (AP) instead of an Ethernet switch.
WLANs connect mobile devices that are often
battery powered, as opposed to plugged-in LAN devices. Wireless network
interface cards (NICs) tend to reduce the battery life of a mobile device.
WLANs support hosts that contend for access
on the RF media (frequency bands). 802.11 prescribes collision-avoidance
instead of collision-detection for media access to proactively avoid collisions
within the media.
WLANs use a different frame format than
wired Ethernet LANs. WLANs require additional information in the Layer 2
header of the frame.
WLANs raise more privacy issues because
radio frequencies can reach outside the facility. 28
Wireless Networks
WLAN Standards: the 802.11 wireless standards
802.11 wireless LAN is an IEEE standard
that defines how radio frequency (RF) in the unlicensed industrial, scientific,
and medical (ISM) frequency bands is used for the physical layer and the
MAC sub-layer of wireless links
When 802.11 was first released, it
prescribed 1 - 2 Mb/s data rates in the 2.4 GHz band. At that time, wired
LANs were operating at 10 Mb/s so the new wireless technology was not
enthusiastically adopted
Since then, wireless LAN standards have
continuously improved with the release of IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11b,
IEEE 802.11g, and draft 802.11n.
802.11 -- applies to wireless LANs and provides 1 or 2 Mbps transmission in
the 2.4 GHz band.
802.11a -- an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and provides
up to 54 Mbps in the 5GHz band.
802.11b (also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) -- an extension to
802.11 that applies to wireless LANS and provides 11 Mbps transmission (with
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a fallback to 5.5, 2 and 1 Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band.
 Wireless Network Components
• Access Points
• NICs – Network Interface Cards
– PCMCIA(Personal Computer Memory Card International A
ssociation)
– USB
– PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect)
– CompactFlash
• Other Wireless Devices
– Bridges and Routers
– Print Servers
• PCs, Laptops, PDAs
Wireless(802.11) Infrastructure Components:
Access Point: connects wireless clients (or stations) to the wired LAN.
an access point converts the TCP/IP
data packets from their 802.11 frame encapsulation format in the air
to the 802.3 Ethernet frame format on the wired Ethernet network.
An access point is a Layer 2 device
that functions like an 802.3 Ethernet hub.
RF is a shared medium and access
points hear all radio traffic. Just as with 802.3 Ethernet, the devices
that want to use the medium contend for it. Unlike Ethernet NICs,
though, it is expensive to make wireless NICs that can transmit and
receive at the same time,
so radio devices do not detect 32
Access points oversee a distributed
coordination function (DCF) called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
This simply means that devices on a
WLAN must sense the medium for energy (RF stimulation above a certain
threshold) and wait until the medium is free before sending.
 Because all devices are required to do this,
the function of coordinating access to the medium is distributed.
If an access point receives data from a
client station, it sends an acknowledgement to the client that the data has
been received.
 This acknowledgement keeps the client
from assuming that a collision occurred and prevents a data retransmission by
the client.
 Wireless Operating Mode
The IEEE 802.11 standards specify two operating modes: infrastructure
mode and ad hoc mode.
• Infrastructure mode is used to connect computers with wireless
network adapters, also known as wireless clients, to an existing wired
network with the help from wireless router or access point.
• Ad hoc mode is used to connect wireless clients directly together,
without the need for a wireless router or access point. An ad hoc
network consists of up to 9 wireless clients, which send their data
directly to each other.
Wireless Networks
Wireless Operations : 802.11 Topologies
Wireless LANs can accommodate various
network topologies. When describing these topologies, the fundamental building
block of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN architecture is the basic service set (BSS). The
standard defines a BSS as a group of stations that communicate with each other.
Ad hoc Networks
Wireless networks can operate without access
points; this is called an ad hoc topology. Client stations which are configured to
operate in ad hoc mode configure the wireless parameters between themselves. The
IEEE 802.11 standard refers to an ad hoc network as an independent BSS (IBSS).

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Wireless Networks
Wireless Operations: 802.11 Topologies
Basic Service Sets
Access points provide an infrastructure that
adds services and improves the range for clients. A single access point in
infrastructure mode manages the wireless parameters and the topology is simply a
BSS. The coverage area for both an IBSS and a BSS is the basic service area
(BSA).

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Wireless Networks
Wireless Operations: 802.11 Topologies
Extended Service Sets
When a single BSS provides insufficient RF
coverage, one or more can be joined through a common distribution system into
an extended service set (ESS). In an ESS, one BSS is differentiated from another
by the BSS identifier (BSSID), which is the MAC address of the access point
serving the BSS. The coverage area is the extended service area (ESA).

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Wireless Networks
Wireless Operations: 802.11 Topologies

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