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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

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SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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3. Switches: intelligent hubs. Used to connect devices

1. Networks & the Effects of to form a LAN. Unlike hubs, the switches store the
MAC addresses of all devices on a lookup table. So, it
Using Them only sends data to the relevant device.
In summary:
1.1. Networks Both are used to connect devices in LAN.
Both use data packets.
Routers Hubs send data to every device on the network.
A device that enables data to be sent between different Switches send data to a relevant device only.
types of networks. It can be connected through cables or Switches have better security.
wirelessly to connect a LAN to the internet. Switches use lookup tables to determine the destination
It can be used for: for a data packet.
Switches use MAC addresses for relevant device
connecting networks and devices to the internet, locations.
storing computer addresses,
routing data packets. 4. Bridges: Devices that connect one LAN to another
LAN that use the same protocol. Unlike routers, they
When a data packet is received, the router checks if the can’t communicate with external networks, such as
packet is intended for it or another network. The data packet the Internet.
is routed to the local switch/hub if it's meant for its network. Comparison:
If not, the data packet is sent to the relevant router, which
sends it to the relevant device. Bridges connect LANs together; routers connect various
types of networks together.
They consult routing cables to know where to send the Bridges scan MAC addresses while routers scan the IP
data. addresses.
Both send out data in the form of data packets.
Common Network Devices Bridges connect networks with the same protocol;
1. Network Interface Cards (NIC): These are needed routers can connect networks with different protocols.
The router uses routing tables to direct data packets, but
to allow a device to connect to a network. Turns
binary data into an electrical signal that allows bridges don’t.
network access. Usually integrated into the Bridges have only two ports; routers have multiple ports.
motherboard.
Wi-Fi & Bluetooth
Each NIC is given a unique hardwired media access
control (MAC) address. Both are used for wireless communication between devices.
Media access control (MAC) address: a number that They both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of
uniquely identifies a device when connected to a data transmission.
network. Bluetooth uses:
The first six hex digits identify the manufacturer’s code, When transferring data between 2 or more devices that
and the next 6 identify the device’s serial number. are very close together.
2. Hubs: they are hardware devices that can have When the speed of data transmission isn’t crucial.
several other devices connected to them. They are For low-bandwidth applications.
used to connect devices together to form a local area Wi-Fi uses:
network (LAN). It takes a data packet received by one
of its ports and sends it to all relevant or irrelevant Full-scale networks.
devices that are connected to it. When the data transfer rate is crucial.
For uses where a higher range and better security are
It is not very secure to broadcast data to all devices. required.
Unnecessary network traffic.

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Differences and similarities: Disadvantages:
Bluetooth uses a transmission frequency of 2.4 GHz, A stable internet connection is always required.
whereas Wi-Fi uses a 2.4 – 5.0 GHz range. Data storage in clouds may be vulnerable to security
Wi-Fi has a much faster data transfer rate. breaches.
Wi-Fi has a higher geographical range in which it is The user depends on the storage provider for reliability
effective. and availability of services.
Bluetooth only allows up to 7 devices to be connected The services may become expensive as the amount of
simultaneously, whereas the number of devices storage or bandwidth required increases.
connected to a Wi-Fi network depends on the
router/routers used. Common Network Environments
Bluetooth uses key-matching encryption. However, Wi-Fi
uses WPA (Wi-Fi protected access) and WEP (wireless 1. Internet:
equivalent privacy).
The Internet is a very large global network that consists
Cloud Computing of many other interconnected networks
The World Wide Web is a vast collection of web pages
This method is where data is stored on remote servers that can be accessed using a web browser.
accessed online. The World Wide Web allows you to access information
The three types of cloud storage are: by using the internet

1. Public Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage Characteristics:

provider are different companies.
2. Private Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage It is an open network, meaning everyone can access the
provider are a single organization. same resources and information as everybody else.
3. Hybrid Cloud - Combines public and private cloud People from all over the world can communicate with
options and allows sensitive data to remain private each other in real-time.
while providing public cloud services for less sensitive Available to anyone who has a suitable device and access
information. to any one of the interconnected networks.

Cloud data is duplicated and stored on other servers to Uses:

ensure availability during system failures, upgrades, and
Education and training
maintenance. Social Networking
Advantages: Online shopping
Entertainment
Services can be scaled up or down according to changing
requirements. 2. Intranet:
Cloud storage eliminates the need for a business to
purchase expensive equipment for infrastructure and Usually private and are used to send information
maintenance. securely and safely.
Readily available globally, allowing both remote working Access to an organization’s Intranet is restricted and only
and data sharing. accessible to authorized users such as employees.
Providers offer high levels of ensuring that services are Intranets have many advantages over the internet, such
always available. as:
It can offer an almost unlimited amount of storage. better bandwidth than the internet,
A backup of the data from the cloud will allow full data data is kept within the organization,
recovery in case of incidents. less chance of hacking and attacks,
Files can be synced across multiple devices. administrators can manage access to external sites
There is no need to carry storage devices around. and links.

Characteristics:

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A private network that is accessible to employees within 1. Local Area Network (LAN): networks usually
a company or organization. contained within a single building or small
Usually behind a firewall to ensure security. geographical location. It is made up of hubs and/or
Allows for document sharing and the use of switches, which will connect several devices together.
collaboration tools between users. One hub or switch commonly connects to a router,
It can be customized to meet the specific requirements allowing LAN connectivity to other outside networks
of the business. such as the Internet.
Users will require a username and password to access
the Intranet. Advantages:

Allows centralized management of updates, backups and

3. Extranet: software installations.
Private Intranet that also allows access by selected Can secure its devices with the use of firewalls, antivirus
parties that reside outside of the organization. These software and other security features to prevent
parties, for example, maybe customers, key stakeholders unauthorized access.
or clients. A LAN allows users on the network to share resources
Users will have an authorization level once they have such as printers and other peripherals.
successfully logged in, which will determine which Disadvantages:
resources they may access.
Similarities between the Internet, Intranet and extranet The network may not function correctly in case of
are as follows: hardware failure.
They are all web-based technologies They are more prone to attacks than standalone
They allow users to access information remotely computers.
They all use client-server architecture Data and peripheral accessing can be slow, based on
They all use security measures such as network traffic.
authentication and encryption LAN networks require maintenance to ensure the
They all promote and facilitate information and software is up-to-date.
resource sharing
Differences between the internet, intranet and extranet 2. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): Local Area
are as follows: Networks allow devices to connect wirelessly rather
The internet is a global network, whereas an than using physical cables. Wireless Access Points
intranet/extranet is a private network contained (WAPs) are connected to an existing wired network,
within an organization which provides wireless connectivity. Support a vast
The use of the internet covers a wide range of range of devices, such as smartphones and laptops,
purposes, whereas an intranet/extranet is designed are very popular in public areas such as shopping
for specific users and purposes. malls.
Much information is publicly available, whereas an Advantages:
intranet/extranet is not.
The Internet is not owned solely by one person or Allows users to connect anywhere in the range of a
organization, whereas the organization usually owns Wireless Access Point (WAP).
intranets/extranets. They can be used in various indoor and outdoor
environments, making them highly flexible.
Network Types As the requirements change, additional WAPs can be
added relatively easily.
Printer access can be given to wireless devices.
Disadvantages:

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The strength of their signals can be affected by obstacles Connection to a network exposes a user to:
such as walls. Hacking: Unauthorized access given to the
Speeds can be affected by high-traffic areas. computer. This can lead to identity theft or the
It can sustain interference from other devices which can misuse of personal information.
affect performance and connectivity. Phishing: Phishing involves getting sensitive
Can be vulnerable to security threats due to signal information, such as usernames, passwords, and
interception. credit card details, for malicious reasons by
mimicking a reliable webpage on the network
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN): is formed by several Pharming: This is malicious code installed on a user’s
LANs connected through a router. It is expensive. computer or a web server; the code will redirect the
However, it comes with a more enhanced security. user to a fake website without their knowledge (the
Additional hardware is needed for a WAN: Routers, user doesn’t have to take any action, unlike phishing).
modems, and proxy servers. Viruses: Program code that replicates (copies itself)
Advantages: to delete or corrupt files and cause the computer to
malfunction
Provide the ability to connect geographically dispersed
locations, such as offices in different cities or countries. Passwords
Offer the flexibility to scale up or down based on the
organisation's needs. It is a common form of security often accompanied by a
Administrators can monitor and manage the network username or email address.
infrastructure from a single location. There are many ways to enhance the security of your
Disadvantages: password, such as the following:
Ensure that the password is changed regularly in case
Setting up and maintaining a WAN can be expensive, it has been obtained illegally or accidentally
especially compared to LANs. Ensure that the password uses a combination of
Cover larger distances and rely on public networks or uppercase, lowercase, numbers and special
leased lines, which can introduce latency and affect characters to make the password more difficult to
performance. guess.
WANs are subject to the reliability and availability of iloveict is a weak password
external service providers. 1lov3ICT# is a strong password
Anti-spyware software can be run regularly to ensure
1.2. Network Issues and that your information, including your password, is not
passed to an unauthorized third-party user.
Communication
Other Authentication Methods

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1. Zero login: A security concept that eliminates Comparing the scanned files against an extensive
traditional login methods, such as usernames and database of known threats
passwords, using biometrics or other authentication Real-time scanning
factors for seamless and password-less access. Regular updates to gather an up-to-date list of known
2. Biometric Recognition: These authentication threats
methods use unique physical or behavioural Quarantine of infected files
characteristics, such as fingerprints, iris scans, or Quarantining files allows threats to be automatically
voice recognition, to verify a person's identity. deleted.
3. Magnetic Stripes: These are authentication features Allows the user to determine if the file is a legitimate
on cards storing data magnetically. They enable threat and not a false positive.
secure identification and authorization by containing
encoded information that magnetic stripe readers Heuristic Checking: Instead of relying solely on a database
can read. of known viruses, this method looks for behavioural patterns
4. Smart Cards: Smart cards are portable devices with and other features in a file to identify possible risks.
integrated circuits to store and process data. They
are used for authentication, identification, and secure Electronic Conferencing
transactions in various applications such as banking,
telecommunications, and access control. 1. Video Conferencing: It is a form of audio and video
communication. It serves as a stand-in for face-to-
5. Physical Tokens: It is a type of authentication that
face meetings between several persons who may
takes the shape of a solid object. The user
reside abroad or in another region of the country. It
demonstrates ownership of the token through
interaction with a login system. Physical tokens have utilizes a network in some way and is done in real-
embedded clocks that create one-time passwords time.
(OTPs) when a PIN and other authentication The basic hardware includes:
information are entered.
6. Electronic Tokens are applications that users install webcams,
on their hardware, such as smartphones. Say a large monitors/television screens,
person wants to access a website on a tablet microphones,
computer. To access this website, users must first speakers.
authenticate themselves using electronic tokens. The
user has already set up the electronic token app with The software used are:
their smartphone. The user launches the app on their Webcam and microphone software drivers
smartphone when the website asks them to verify CODEC (coder and de-coder)
their identity. The program creates an OTP that is Echo cancellation software
only good for a short period of time.
Advantages:
Anti-malware Software
It is much easier to access important documents or bring
Anti-malware software is designed to protect devices in ‘experts’ at key parts of the conference.
against viruses and malicious software. It has 3 primary It is possible to hold conferences at short notice.
purposes: detect, prevent and remove malicious Reduced travelling costs.
software. It is installed onto a computer system and will There is no need to pay for hotel accommodation or
operate in the background. venue hire.
Reduces the cost of taking people away from work for
Standard features of Anti-Malware software include the two or three days to travel.
following: Using video conferencing is better than having delegates
travel to potentially unsafe places worldwide.
Disadvantages:

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Advantages:
Potential time lag in responses/delays when talking.
Images can jerk. Allows participants to see each other through video,
It is very expensive to set up in the first place. providing a more immersive and engaging experience
Problems if the delegates live in different countries with than audio conferencing.
large time zone differences. Often offer screen sharing capabilities, enabling
Requires IT knowledge to some extent. participants to share presentations, documents, or other
It's not the best for people who consider travelling a job visual content in real-time.
perk. Often provide features like chat, polling, hand raising,
Completely reliant on stable internet connections. and Q&A sessions, fostering interactivity and
engagement among participants.
2. Audio Conferencing: Meetings held using audio
(sound) technology are called audio conferencing. Disadvantages:
The normal telephone network can be used for audio
conferencing, frequently called a phone conference. Heavily relies on internet connectivity and technical
infrastructure.
The hardware required is: They can be susceptible to distractions and multitasking.
It often has various features and settings that
a computer (with built-in microphones and speakers) participants need to familiarize themselves with,
external microphone and/or speakers especially if they are new to the platform.
an internet phone
a standard phone.

Advantages:

Allows participants to join meetings from any location.

Eliminates the need for travel expenses, such as
transportation, accommodation, and meals.
Saves time by eliminating travel time and allowing
meetings to be scheduled and conducted quickly.

Disadvantages:

Lacks the visual aspect of face-to-face meetings, which

can hinder communication.
It can limit interaction and engagement compared to in-
person or video conferencing.
Heavily relies on technology, and technical issues such as
poor audio quality, background noise, or connectivity
problems are common.

3. Web Conferencing:
Web conferencing, often known as webinars or
webcasts, makes use of the Internet to enable
conference calls. This system makes use of numerous
computers that are interconnected over the internet.
It operates in real-time, just like video conferencing,
and enables the following meeting types:
» business meetings to discuss new ideas
» presentations
» online education or training.

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