Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

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Kuwait Journal of Science

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Full Length Article

Re-evaluation of a geothermal system model based on high-resolution

gravity field inversion: A case study of the Maritaing geothermal field, Alor
Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia
Rholland A. Boling a, Jehunias L. Tanesib a, Hadi I. Sutaji a, Laura A.S. Lapono a,
Richard Lewerissa b, *
a
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences and Engineering, Nusa Cendana University, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Kupang, 85148, Indonesia
b
Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Papua University, Papua Barat, Manokwari, 98314, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Maritaing region in East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia, offers significant geothermal potential for
Maritaing direct power generation and use. This study aims to re-evaluate the geothermal system model in the Maritaing
Geothermal geothermal field using high-resolution gravity inversion. High-resolution gravimetric data were collected using
Gravity field
satellite observations and data processing techniques, allowing a better understanding of the subsurface
Gradient analysis
Inversion
geological structure and density distribution of rocks associated with the geothermal reservoir. This study
applied data corrections to acquire complete Bouguer anomalies, gravity gradient analysis to detect geological
structures, and inversion modeling of residual gravity anomalies to predict subsurface rock density distribution.
The complete Bouguer anomalies exhibit positive values ranging from 70 to 140 mGal and have a northwest­
–southeast orientation, indicating the existence of andesitic lava and pyroclastic volcanic rocks. Gravity gradient
analysis determines the geological structures, such as faults or fractures, used as conduits to create Kura Hot
Springs. The model provides useful insights into geological occurrences, such as faults, rock layers, and reservoir
accumulations that support geothermal fluids. Based on the present study’s findings, we provide recommenda­
tions for developing and managing geothermal resources in the Maritaing area.

1. Introduction In 2020, the geological agency of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources (ESDM) released the geothermal potential in Indonesia,
Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that harnesses the reaching 24 GWe (Adiwardhana and Institute, 2023). The use of
thermal energy of the Earth’s crust to generate electricity. This form of geothermal energy sources in Indonesia reached 3109.5 MWe, which
energy production is facilitated by natural radioactive isotopes, such as means that only 10.5% of the potential energy has been harnessed
thorium, uranium, and potassium, present in the fractured magma. (Khasmadin and Harmoko, 2021). The East Nusa Tenggara (NTT)
Heating of the Earth’s interior is transferred to the surface via the cir­ province in Indonesia has significant geothermal potential, with 630 and
culation of water, where rocks beneath the Earth’s crust are heated, 700 MWe in the resource and reserve classes, respectively. The Mar­
leading to fracturing, metamorphism, and degradation (Zayed et al., itaing region, located within the Alor Regency in the province of NTT,
2023). Geothermal energy is a clean and sustainable energy source that boasts hot springs with temperatures ranging from 58 ◦ C to 81 ◦ C, of­
can reduce air pollution. However, developing these resources requires fering a promising location for geothermal development. Hot spring
knowledge, technical assistance, and integrated geophysical methodol­ water, classified as chloride and chloride-bicarbonate, has a Na– K
ogies to minimize exploitation hazards (Tian et al., 2022). Indonesia’s geothermometer calculation, indicating temperatures of up to 200 ◦ C
location on the Ring of Fire of the world’s tectonic plates makes it a (Setiawan et al., 2015).
geothermal energy repository. In Indonesia, the total geothermal po­ Several geophysical studies have been performed in the Maritaing
tential was obtained from 312 fields located on several islands (Nas­ geothermal field to determine the subsurface conditions, understand the
ruddin et al., 2016; Pambudi, 2018). mechanisms driving the hydrothermal system, and determine the size of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Lewerissa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjs.2024.100187
Received 15 July 2023; Received in revised form 31 December 2023; Accepted 8 January 2024
Available online 10 January 2024
2307-4108/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Kuwait University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

the reservoir and heat source. Geological and geochemical research has
been conducted, and the results show that the geothermal potential in
the Maritaing area is located around the Kura hot spring within the
Karitemang volcanic zone, covering an area of 4 km2 with a reservoir
temperature of 200 ◦ C (Setiawan et al., 2015). Geothermal field research
has identified a large caldera with anomalies near the Kura hot springs
using gravity and audio magnetotelluric measurements. Altered rocks
revealed low resistivity; however, a moderate resistivity reservoir zone
was discovered at a depth of 750 m (Supriyadi et al., 2015). In 2017,
magnetotelluric and time domain electromagnetics (TDEM) tests found
a resistivity of 10 Ohm.m in the cap rock layer, whereas the geothermal
reservoir layer is a transition zone with 20–150 Ohm.m (Rahadinata
et al., 2017).
The Maritaing geothermal system requires further investigation to
acquire a comprehensive understanding of its fault structures as pro­
spective conduits for geothermal reservoirs, owing to the restricted na­
ture of geophysical observations and their uncertain identification. The
purpose of this study is to provide support for previous research on
geothermal activity in Maritaing, re-evaluate the subsurface structure of
Fig. 1. Geological map of the Maritaing geothermal field in Alor Regency, East
the geothermal field, and identify the geometries of the fields. Our Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia (Modified from Setiawan et al., 2015).
research used the gravity method of geophysics to re-evaluate the
geothermal system in the Maritaing region, Alor Regency, East Nusa
northwest–southeast trending faults associated with depression forma­
Tenggara, Indonesia. Geophysical techniques that detect subsurface
tion and southwest– northeast trending faults serving as antithetic
images are important for geothermal energy exploration, helping to
faults.
identify and determine geothermal resources (Aboud et al., 2022;
Hot springs in the Maritaing geothermal field are sources of chloride-
Alqahtani et al., 2023). Gravity methods are a type of potential field, a
type water. The chloride content, temperature, and electrical conduc­
non-invasive geophysical technique used to detect subsurface features
tivity in the Kura hot spring are probably related to the presence of silica
such as bedrock, faults, contacts, and intrusions (Saibi et al., 2022).
sinter. It is highly probable that this hot water originated directly from a
Gravity methods are cost-effective and easy to use, making them a
reservoir and mixed with the surface water. In addition, geothermal
practical choice. It has been successful in geotechnical (Pringle et al.,
manifestations occur along the coastline at lower temperatures, pre­
2012; Saibi et al., 2022), structural interpretation (Saibi et al., 2019),
sumably by mixing with seawater. Meanwhile, other geothermal man­
and geothermal investigations (Abdel Zaher et al., 2018).
ifestations with lower temperatures have bicarbonate-type water,
We used 3-D inversion modeling of gravity anomaly data to obtain
believed to be a mixture of hot water with surface water, condensed
subsurface density contrast parameters for the Maritaing geothermal
water, or interactions with carbonate rocks (Setiawan et al., 2015).
field. The gravity anomalies were derived from the high-resolution
Geothermal activity can be identified by the emergence of hot springs in
Global Gravity Model Plus (GGMplus) developed by Curtin University
the Kura River, with temperatures ranging from 58 ◦ C to 81 ◦ C
and TU Munich (TUM), the Australian Research Council, the TUM
(Supriyadi et al., 2015).
Institute of Advanced Study, and the iVEC supercomputing facility in
Western Australia (Hirt et al., 2013). The underlying model is supported
3. Methodology
by vertical and horizontal gradient analyses, analytical signals, tilt an­
gles, and anomaly separation to enhance the images of fault structures or
3.1. Location and data collection
fractures, geological contact boundaries, and geothermal rock sources.
The results of this study are expected to assist in the exploration and
Maritaing is a geothermal potential field in Alor Regency, East Nusa
exploitation of the Maritaing geothermal field in the future.
Tenggara Province, Indonesia. It spans 169.20 km2, with mountain
ranges dominating the northern part and hilly terrain dominating the
2. Geology setting southern part. The field contains 30 geothermal manifestations,
including hot springs, warm springs, and altered rocks along the Kura
The Maritaing geothermal area in the eastern Alor Regency consists
River (Setiawan et al., 2015). The DEM from Curtin University’s Earth
of sedimentary and volcanic rocks as well as surface deposits. Sedi­
Residual Terrain Model (ERTM) 2160 provides a 7.2 arc-second reso­
mentary rocks include conglomerates and reef limestones, whereas
lution gravity field map for land regions within 60 ◦ latitude and an
volcanic rocks are Mio-Pliocene-aged lava and pyroclastic elements. The
offshore zone, excluding Greenland (Hirt et al., 2014). The DEM data,
surface deposits include alluvium and lake deposits (Fig. 1). The oldest
ranging from 0 to 1360 m above sea level, mainly displayed geothermal
volcanic rocks are lava and pyroclastic, with pyroxene and hornblende
manifestations at low topographic elevations in the research area
andesite as lava units and Katuwusi and Koya-Koya as pyroclastic units.
(Fig. 2). It was employed in 3-D inversion modeling to analyze gravity
The exposed lava rocks cracked and generated columnar and sheet-like
anomaly data as an elevation-grid sensor.
fractures (Setiawan et al., 2015). The tuff and breccia outcrops were
This study used high-resolution Earth gravity field data from
fractured and filled with calcite minerals, generating calcite veins. The
GGMplus, a joint effort by Curtin University, TU Munich, the Australian
stratigraphic sequences of these rocks include Katuwusi andesite lava,
Research Council, the TUM Institute of Advanced Study, and the iVEC
Katuwusi pyroclastic, Worakena andesite lava, Koya-Koya andesite lava,
supercomputing facility in Western Australia with a spatial resolution of
Koya-Koya pyroclastic flow, Inukumang andesite lava, Pakmana
220 m (Hirt et al., 2013). The GGM data used were in the form of gravity
andesite lava, Meriaka andesite lava, Kunatena pyroclastic flow, Bula­
disturbances equal to free-air anomalies extracted for the Maritaing
maka andesite lava, Karitemang dacite lava, lake deposits, Karitemang-1
geothermal area in Alor Regency, Indonesia. Free-air anomalies ranged
pyroclastic flow, conglomerate, limestone, and alluvium (Setiawan
from 90 to 270 mGal in the study region, with low anomalies in the
et al., 2015).
eastern, northern, and southern regions and geothermal manifestations
According to the evaluation of the digital elevation model (DEM), the
in low-gravity zones. The western and northern areas showed moderate
geological structures in Maritaing predominantly consist of

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R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

were verified or controlled using these anomalies.

3.2. Gravity anomaly separation

The Bouguer gravity anomaly indicates the concerted effect of

masses deep beneath the Earth’s surface. Geothermal investigations
typically focus on shallow targets; therefore, deeper effects dominate the
surface response. Shallow impacts are termed residual, whereas regional
reactions result from deeper, larger structures (Mallick et al., 2012). This
study used an upward continuation approach to separate the regional
and residual anomalies, resulting in smooth and steady anomalies at a
specified height. Filtering was performed progressively from the surface
to 2.5 km above the topography. The residual anomaly was then used in
the 3-D gravity data inversion.

3.3. Gravity gradient analysis

Gravity gradient analysis aids geothermal potential studies by

analyzing vertical and horizontal gradients, curvature, and lateral con­
trasts. This approach helps determine depths and geological structures
and enhances the indicators of geological structures (Calderón and
Gallardo, 2022). This study used gravity gradient analysis to enhance
Fig. 2. Geothermal field in Maritaing Village, Alor Regency, East Nusa Teng­ the identification of geological contacts, fault structures, and fractures in
gara Province, Indonesia.
the Maritaing geothermal field, thereby enhancing fluid movement
paths. Sedimentary basins have dispersed geothermal fields that follow
to high anomalies (Fig. 3a). fault-controlled linear trends (Nouraliee et al., 2015). Faults function as
The full-scale gravity model was applied to calculate the complete fluid conduits in geothermal reservoirs, making fault detection impor­
Bouguer anomaly in the Maritaing geothermal area, and Bouguer cor­ tant for target area selection. The gravity field contains analytical signals
rections were not added separately because they were directly incor­ for subsurface rock property boundaries, which can be used to aid the
porated into the model. Full-scale gravity correction considers the horizontal delineation of discontinuities or stratigraphic borders
gravitational effects caused by the Earth’s topography, including the (Mohammadzadeh Moghaddam et al., 2016).
geoid, whereas residual gravity focuses on high-frequency gravity var­ This study used vertical and horizontal gradients, analytical signals,
iations using a reference spherical harmonic of degree 2160 (Hirt et al., and tilt angle analysis to improve fault or fracture structure imaging,
2019). In the Maritaing region, full-scale gravity readings ranged from geological contact boundaries, and geothermal reservoir rock identifi­
10 to 140 mGal and exhibited anomalous patterns that corresponded to cation in the Maritaing geothermal zone in Alor Regency, Indonesia. The
the local topography. To assess and confirm the accuracy of the GGM vertical gradient, often known as the first vertical derivative (VG), im­
model, global marine gravity field data based on radar altimetry ob­ proves discontinuity sharpness and shallow structure perception. How­
servations from the CryoSat-2 and Jason-1 satellites were used to ever, it produces noise in maps because of the positive anomalies above
determine the free-air anomalies. These data were available at a spatial the subsurface mass uplifts and zero contours around their boundaries
resolution of 1 min and provided at no cost (Sandwell et al., 2014). (Abdelmaksoud et al., 2023; Ali et al., 2014). The total horizontal
TOPEX free air anomalies ranged from 99.40 to 253.60 mGal in the gradient (THDR) application helps to identify linear structural edges as
Maritaing geothermal field, with high values in the northwest and positive peaks and zero values above the bodies (Pocasangre et al.,
decreasing toward the southeast (Fig. 4a). Modern terrain correction 2020). The equation for THDR can be expressed as follows (Abdel­
using the full-scale gravity of SRTM2gravity resulted in positive com­ maksoud et al., 2023; Cordell, 1979):
plete Bouguer anomalies ranging from 69.58 to 173.09 mGal (Fig. 4b). A √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
circular high pattern in the northwest and additional low positive ( )2 ( )2̅
∂g ∂g
anomalies in the north were observed in the complete Bouguer anom­ THDR = + (1)
∂x ∂y
alies, gradually decreasing toward the south. GGMplus Bouguer data

Fig. 3. High-resolution gravity data from GGMplus in the Maritaing geothermal field in Alor Regency, Indonesia: (a) free air anomalies (Hirt et al., 2013) and (b)
full-scale gravity from the SRTM2gravity model for modern terrain correction (Hirt et al., 2019).

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R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

Fig. 4. Gravity field data at the Maritaing geothermal site in Alor Regency, Indonesia, from Topex: (a) free-air anomalies and (b) complete Bouguer anomaly,
adjusted with full-scale gravity corrections.

The derivatives of the gravity field (g) in the x- and y-directions are ∂∂xg This study employed an iterative reweighting least-squares (IRLS)
and algorithm to solve optimization problems by repeatedly performing
∂y, respectively, with values always positive for the total horizontal
∂g
weighted least-squares calculations. The research area is a rectangular
gradient.
grid with 31 cells in the x-direction, 29 cells in the y-direction, and 15
The Bouguer anomaly signal in the Maritaing geothermal region was
cells in the z-direction, as shown in Fig. 5. Each rectangular cell
analyzed, showing geological characteristics such as contacts and faults.
measured 500 m × 500 m and was increased by 250 m from the up­
The analytical signal in gravity data uses the Poisson relationship to
permost layer to a depth of 3000 m. To account for noise, a data error of
determine the geological contact boundaries, with the highest amplitude
0.256 mGal was selected. A reference model assigns a density value of
used (Hsu et al., 1996). The analytical signal for the observed gravity
2.54 g/cm3 to all cells based on Bouguer density calculations (Supriyadi
data is as follows:
et al., 2015).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
∂g ∂g ∂g
As (x, y) = + + (2) 4. Results and discussion
∂x ∂y ∂z

As (x, y) is the analytical signal of the gravity data at position (x, y), g 4.1. Complete Bouguer anomaly in the Maritaing geothermal field

represents the complete Bouguer anomaly data, (∂∂xg, ∂∂gy) represents the
The Maritaing geothermal manifestation area in Indonesia exhibits a
horizontal gradient, and is the vertical gradient.
∂g
∂z complete Bouguer anomaly with a range of 70–140 mGal and is oriented
We used tilt angle (TA) analysis, which functions as an automated in a northwest–southwest direction. Higher anomalies in the north­
gain control by normalizing the vertical gradient to the total horizontal western part decrease toward the southeast, whereas geothermal man­
gradient of the gravity field using the arctangent function. TA is a useful ifestations, such as hot springs along the Kura River, are found within
tool for displaying structures in subsurface densities, with zero contours
indicating structural edges and positive values indicating density con­
trasts. The equation for TA is as follows (Abdelmaksoud et al., 2023):
( )
VG
TA = tan− 1 (3)
THDR
The arctangent function range of the TA values was limited to ± 90◦ ,
representing the THDR and VG amplitudes. A study in Indonesia’s
Maritaing geothermal field examined the Earth’s gravity gradient in the
frequency domain using a two-dimensional fast Fourier transform.

3.4. 3-D gravity anomaly inversion

Gravity data inversion determines the rock densities beneath the

surface using the 3-D inversion of Bouguer anomalies. Inverse problems
can become complex, ill-defined, and uncertain. Solving this problem
involves combining modeled data with measured boundary data in a
least-squares analysis (Toushmalani and Saibi, 2015). The main input
data are residual gravity anomalies, which enhance the near-surface
structures. The VOXI Earth Modeling Tool, based on Oasis Montaj
9.10 software, was used to estimate the density distribution of the
subsurface structures. The platform uses the Cartesian Cut Cell Method,
a cloud-based computing service for high-speed, large-scale 3-D Fig. 5. The Maritaing geothermal field was created through the implementa­
modeling without local computer specifications (Ingram et al., 2003). tion of a 3-D grid inversion technique. The grid consisted of 31 cells in the x-
This method enables the precise depiction of geological surfaces in terms direction, 19 in the y-direction, and 15 in the z-direction. The visualization
of their geometric characteristics (Ellis and MacLeod, 2013; Pocasangre exhibited varying topographical elevations, whereas the gravity data points
et al., 2020). were evenly distributed for the analysis.

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R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

moderate to low positive gravity anomalies (Fig. 6). The northwest­ with a dominant pattern of positive anomalies in the northwest and
–southeast anomaly pattern is related to similar faults, contributing to negative anomalies in the southeastern part of the study area (Fig. 7b).
the formation of the Maritaing depression (Supriyadi et al., 2015). High The residual gravity anomaly pattern is more complex than the regional
positive gravity anomalies are linked to volcanic rocks such as lava and anomalies but follows a complete Bouguer anomaly pattern. This is
pyroclastics, whereas low positive gravity anomalies are likely due to believed to be related to near-surface geological structures. The Kura hot
sedimentary rocks such as conglomerates and reef limestone, as well as springs, situated along a fault line, exhibit negative anomalies ranging
surface deposits such as alluvium and lake sediments (Setiawan et al., from 5 to 10 mGal, which are attributed to tectonic activity-induced
2015). rock fracturing. Hot water from geothermal reservoirs migrates to­
The GGMplus model yielded a complete Bouguer anomaly in the ward the surface, increasing the rock temperature and decreasing the
Maritaing region, which is compatible with the Topex gravity field density as a fluid pathway.
measurements (Fig. 4b). The contour map of the positive anomalies Negative anomalies in the Karimateng crater and hot springs are
showed similar values, with some variation in patterns, especially in the associated with the Karitemang pyroclastic flow, which affected the
northern part of the study area. These differences may be due to the surface geology of the Maritaing geothermal system (Fig. 1). Past
spatial resolution differences between the two datasets. The complete magmatic activity has generated fractures and rock fissures with greater
GGMplus Bouguer anomaly is reliable for further analysis to establish a permeability, allowing hot fluids to move upward to the surface. In the
subsurface model of the Maritaing geothermal field. research area, negative residual anomalies from southwest to northeast
imply alteration zones and geothermal reservoir layers with tempera­
4.2. Regional and residual gravity anomalies in the Maritaing geothermal tures of approximately 200 ◦ C (Setiawan et al., 2015). These anomalies
field were applied to the inversion modeling of the Maritaing geothermal
field in Alor Regency, Indonesia.
We employed upward continuation as a low-pass filter to separate
the regional and residual anomalies from the complete Bouguer anom­ 4.3. Geological structure identification based on gravity gradient
aly data. The largest upward continuation height was 2.5 km above the attributes
surface, resulting in relatively stable anomaly patterns. Two-
dimensional radial spectrum analysis and the magnetotelluric (MT) This study analyzed geological structures using gravity gradient at­
method of subsurface modeling were used to establish the upward tributes from Bouguer anomaly data from the Maritaing geothermal
continuation height. The results revealed a high-resistivity zone at a field in Indonesia. Four types of gradient analyses were performed:
depth of 2 km, most likely due to intrusive rock functioning as a vertical, total horizontal, analytical signal, and tilt angle. Fig. 8a shows a
geothermal heat source for up to 4 km (Rahadinata et al., 2017). Geo­ vertical gradient with amplitudes ranging from − 0.036 to 0.030 mGal/
thermometer measurements of hot spring temperatures in the study area m, with high amplitudes in the northwest and low amplitudes in the
found temperatures ranging from 50 ◦ C–80 ◦ C, but at some points there southwest–northeast direction. High-amplitude contours are related to
were hot water temperatures <50 ◦ C (Setiawan et al., 2015). The basement uplift from andesitic volcanic rocks, whereas Kura hot springs
regional anomaly shows positive values ranging from 80 mGal to 118 along fault lines have zero-amplitude values on vertical gradient maps.
mGal, with larger values in the northwest and decreasing toward the A vertical gradient shows positive anomalies above the uplifted base­
southeast (Fig. 7a). Regional anomalies are associated with volcanic lava ment structures with zero contours along the edges (Abdelmaksoud
rocks and deep geological systems. The Kura hot spring distribution is et al., 2023).
correlated with positive anomalies, which are transitory zones in the The total horizontal gradient amplitudes ranged from 0.001 to
Maritaing geothermal system. 0.0376 mGal/m, with high amplitudes in the northwest and low am­
The residual gravity anomaly was calculated by subtracting the plitudes in the southeast. The study location shows fault structures with
regional anomaly from the Bouguer anomaly, which was obtained at a maximum horizontal gradient amplitudes, primarily along the Kura hot
height of 2.5 km. The residual anomaly ranged from − 15 to 24 mGal, spring faults, as hydrothermal alteration zones. A horizontal gradient
with minimum amplitudes dominates the northwest–northwest area,
which is probably associated with an andesitic lava basement. The
horizontal gradient is maximized at the edges and zeros above the
bodies, thereby reducing noise sensitivity and identifying shallow and
deep structural boundaries (Pocasangre et al., 2020).
Fig. 8c shows an analytical signal map from Bouguer anomaly data in
Maritaing, ranging from 0.0004 mGal/m to 0.04 mGal/m. High-
amplitude contours dominated the northwestern region, whereas low-
amplitude areas were scattered in the northern, central, and southern
regions. The fault structures, particularly near the Kura hot springs, have
high-amplitude values in the complete Bouguer anomaly signal, likely
due to the presence and dominance of andesitic lava rocks. A tilt angle
analysis was conducted, ranging from − 89.5◦ to 88.4◦ (Fig. 8d). The
positive tilt angles in the northern region are believed to be due to
andesitic lava rocks acting as heat sources, whereas negative angles
occur outside the heat source rocks.
The Kura hot spring area features fault structures aligned with tilt-
angle zero contours, indicating geological boundaries that influence
the Maritaing geothermal system. Altinoğlu et al. conducted synthetic
modeling in 2015 by analyzing the tilt angle values on three vertical
prisms with 0.3 g/cm3 density contrast. The results showed zero values
at the prism edges, whereas the maximum and minimum values were
found inside and outside the prisms (Altinoğlu et al., 2015). Gradient
Fig. 6. Complete Bouguer anomaly of the Maritaing geothermal field in Alor analyses improved the delineation of geological structures in the Mar­
Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia, based on GGMplus data. itaing geothermal field by enhancing the vertical, horizontal, and

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R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

Fig. 7. Separation of regional and residual gravity anomalies in the Maritaing area by upward continuation at 2.5 km: (a) regional anomaly and (b) residual anomaly.

Fig. 8. Gravity gradient attributes in the Maritaing geothermal field, Alor Regency, Indonesia, including (a) vertical gradient, (b) total horizontal gradient, (c)
analytical signal, and (d) tilt angle.

analytical signals and tilt angle. difference of 2.5308e-07 between the measured and predicted data. The
subsurface rock density distribution in the 3-D model ranges from 1.40
g/cm3 to 3.10 g/cm3 and is depicted with horizontal layering at various
4.4. 3-D density distribution in the Maritaing geothermal field
depths, including topographic elevation, sea level, 500 m, 1000 m, 1500
m, and 2000 m. Fig. 10a displays topographic domain rock densities,
The Maritaing geothermal field in Alor Regency, Indonesia, was
primarily medium density, with some high-density rocks present at
analyzed using 3-D inversion modeling to determine the subsurface
specific locations. Fig. 10b shows the horizontal rock density variation
density distribution. The inversion results were compared with the
from sea level to 500 m, with high-density rocks dominating the west­
measured residual gravity anomalies (Fig. 9a) and predicted anomalies
ern, southwestern, and northern regions and medium-density rocks
(Fig. 9b) and showed identical patterns with minimal differences or
dominating the eastern, northeastern, and southern regions. High-
errors. The inversion method was used iteratively to fit the gravity
density rocks are attributed to volcanic deposits such as lava and py­
prediction model to the observed residual gravity data. It updates pa­
roclastic rocks, whereas medium-density rocks are associated with
rameters, particularly the density contrast, while minimizing the
sedimentary and surface deposits (Setiawan et al., 2015).
objective function to address non-uniqueness (Li and Oldenburg, 1996).
Kura hot springs are found in moderate-to-high-density rocks and are
The application of the inversion iteration process with an error
believed to be the cap rock of the Maritaing geothermal system.
tolerance of 0.002 yielded a normalized model that exhibited a

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R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

Fig. 9. Inversion of residual gravity anomalies at the Maritaing geothermal field, Alor Regency, NTT, Indonesia. (a) Measurement anomalies and (b) pre­
dicted anomalies.

Fig. 10. 3-D density model at different depths in the Maritaing geothermal field: (a) topographic elevation, (b) sea level, (c) 500 m, (d) 1000 m, (e) 1500 m, and (f)
2000 m.

Conductive zones were found with resistivity values less than 10 Ohm.m contains hot fluids for the Kura hot springs. The Kura hot spring group
at depths of 100 and 250 m around the hot springs (Rahadinata et al., originates from shallow depths mixed with surface water, with reservoir
2017). Corrugated zones in the Maritaing area demonstrate southwest­ temperatures reaching 200 ◦ C (Setiawan et al., 2015). Fig. 10e and f
–northeast coverage and extension, which is possibly the cap rock layer show the horizontal variation in rock density at depths of 1500–2000 m
of the geothermal system. These zones were considered to regulate and >2000 m, which are primarily characterized by low rock density.
manifestations within the surveyed area (Rahadinata et al., 2017). The This is probably a geothermal reservoir in the southwest–northwest di­
cap rock layer is believed to be montmorillonite clay formed from Ter­ rection. High-density rock formations, which serve as heat sources, are
tiary volcanic rock alteration, which exhibits argillaceous characteristics estimated to exist at depths greater than 2500 m.
and interacts with hot fluids near the Kura hot springs (Setiawan et al., Two cross-sectional profiles are presented to illustrate the rock
2015). density distribution beneath the Maritaing geothermal field in the Alor
Fig. 10c shows the horizontal rock density variation from 500 to Regency. The profiles showed variations in the west–east directions A–B
1000 m, with high-density rocks dominating the area. Moderate-to-low- (Fig. 11a) and north–south directions C–D (Fig. 11b). The profiles show
density rocks appear in the north and southwest, representing the variations in rock density in the Maritaing geothermal system, reflecting
transition from the cap rock layer to the geothermal reservoir. Surveys at its vertical geological structure. Faults and zones of weak deformation
depth show conductive zones transitioning into higher resistivity zones due to repeated tectonic activity controlled this system. The cap rock
near manifestations, as revealed by the MT and TDEM surveys (Raha­ layer is associated with medium-density rocks at depths below 1000 m,
dinata et al., 2017). whereas the reservoir layer is believed to exist at depths above 1000 m
Fig. 10d shows the rock density distribution at 1000–1500 m, with with low-density rocks owing to subsurface hot fluids. The density
medium to low density in the southwest–northwest direction. This layer model results align with the geological structural analysis of the Mar­
is the reservoir layer of the Maritaing geothermal system, which itaing geothermal field based on gravity gradient analysis.

7
R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

Fig. 11. Cross-sectional profiles perpendicular to the 3-D subsurface density distribution in the Maritaing geothermal field: (a) west-to-east and (b) north-to-south.

Fig. 11 shows the high rock density within the Karitemang crater, important in the process of discovery, development, and sustainable
which is likely attributable to the significant accumulation of volcanic use of geothermal resources in the Maritaing region.
materials and rocks with a greater density than the surrounding rocks. In
addition, this high rock density may also be the result of magma intru­ Author contribution
sion or geologic pressure causing a denser accumulation of material
beneath the crater, leading to an overall increase in crater density. R. A. B. and J. L. T. developed research ideas for geothermal study in
Conversely, the geothermal reservoir layer in the Maritaing geothermal Maritaing, Alor Regency, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. H. I. J.
field appears to have a low rock density, which is possibly due to the developed the concept and design. R. L. and R. A. B. collected and
presence of geothermal fluids such as hot water or steam, which typi­ processed gravity data, drafted the journal manuscript, and L. A. S. L.
cally have a lower density than solid rock. Proofread and translated into English.

5. Conclusion Data availability

Some of the conclusions obtained from this research are as follows: Research data were obtained upon request and approval from all
authors.
⁃ The Maritaing area in East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia,
shows significant potential for geothermal resources. The use of Declaration of competing interest
high-resolution gravity field inversion data in this study emphasizes
the importance of this region for geothermal energy development. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
⁃ The use of high-resolution gravity field inversion data has proven interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
successful in carefully delineating the geological structure and dis­ the work reported in this paper.
tribution of rock density in the subsurface of the Maritaing
geothermal field. Such meticulous mapping enhances our under­ Acknowledgements
standing of the Earth’s geology.
⁃ Positive values in the Bouguer anomaly indicate the presence of The author expresses gratitude to Curtin University for providing
volcanic rock formations, such as lava and pyroclastic rocks, in the free high-resolution gravity field data from the GGMplus and
study area. This discovery contributes to the identification of the SRTM2gravity models, as well as software for extraction and terrain
geological composition of the area, which has an important value in correction. These resources significantly aided in data processing and
geothermal exploration. allowed for efficient conclusions.
⁃ The gravity field inversion model provides a valuable understanding
of rock density variations and the recognition of rock layers and
reservoirs containing geothermal fluids. This understanding is highly

8
R.A. Boling et al. Kuwait Journal of Science 51 (2024) 100187

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