Chapter One:- Signals and Systems

Jemal H. ( Msc )
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
[email protected]

Chapter One ------------ Signals and Systems 1

 Contents.
1.1 What is a Signal ?
1.2 Classification of a Signals.
1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
1.2.2 Even and Odd Signals.
1.2.3 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals.
1.2.4 Deterministic and Random Signals.
1.2.5 Energy and Power Signals.
1.3 Basic Operation of the Signal.
1.4 Elementary Signals.
1.4.1 Exponential Signals.
1.4.2 Sinusoidal Signal.
1.4.3 Sinusoidal and Complex Exponential Signals.
1.4.4 Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signals.
1.4.5 Step Function.
1.4.6 Impulse Function.
1.4.7 Ramped Function.
2
Cont’d…

1.5 What is a System ?

1.5.1 System Block Diagram.
1.6 Properties of the System.
1.6.1 Stability.
1.6.2 Memory.
1.6.3 Causality.
1.6.4 Inevitability.
1.6.5 Time Invariance.
1.6.6 Linearity.

3
 1.1 What is a Signal ?
 A common form of human communication;
(i) use of speech signal, face to face or telephone channel.
(ii) use of visual signal, taking the form of images of people or
objects around us.

 Real life examples of signals;

(i) Doctor listening to the heartbeat, blood pressure and temperature
of the patient. These represent signals that conveys information
about the state of health of the patient.
(ii) Weather forecast provides information on the temperature,
humidity, and the speed and direction of the prevailing wind. The
signals represented by these quantities help us decide whether to
stay indoor or doing some outdoor activity.
 Indeed , the list of what constitutes a signal is almost endless.

4
 Cont’d…

 By definition, signal is a function of one or more variable that

conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon.
 When the function depends on a single variable, the signal is said
to be one dimensional. Example of one dimensional signal: A
speech signal whose amplitude varies with time, depending on the
spoken word and who speaks it.
 When the function depends on two or more variables, the signal
is said to be multidimensional. Example of multidimensional
signal: An image with horizontal and vertical coordinates of the
image representing the two dimensions.

5
1.2 Classifications of a Signal.

 There are five types of signals;

(i) Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
(ii) Even and Odd Signals.
(iii) Periodic and Non-periodic Signals.
(iv) Deterministic and Random Signals.
(v) Energy and Power Signals.

6
1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals.
Continuous-Time (CT) Signals
 Continuous-Time (CT) Signals are functions whose amplitude
or value varies continuously with time, x(t).
 The symbol t denotes time for continuous-time signal and ( ) used
to denote continuous-time value quantities.
 Example: microphone converts variation in sound pressure (e.g
speech) into corresponding variation in voltage and current.

Figure 1.1: Continuous-Time Signal, x(t).

7
 Cont’d…
Discrete-Time Signals
 Discrete-Time Signal is defined only at discrete instants of time.
Thus, the independent variable has discrete values only, which are
usually uniformly spaced.
 It is often derived from continuous-time signal by sampling it at a
uniform rate. Let Ts denote the sampling period and n denote an
integer. The symbol n denotes time for discrete time signal and [ ]
is used to denote discrete-value quantities.
xn  xnTs , n  0,  1,  2,....

Figure 1.12 (a) Continuous-time signal x(t) . b) Representation of x(t) as a

discrete-time signal. 8
1.2.2 Even and Odd Signals.
 A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be an even signal if

xt   xt  for all t

 The signal x(t) is said to be an odd signal if

xt    xt  for all t

 In summary, an even signal are symmetric about the vertical axis

(time origin) whereas an odd signal are antisymetric about the
origin.

9
Figure 1.4: Even Signal Figure 1.5: Odd Signal.
Example : Even and Odd Signals

Suppose we are given an arbitrary signal x(t).

x(t) is a sum of two components of xe (t ) , which is even
function and xo (t ) , which is odd function.
For even signal, xe (t )  xe (t )

For odd signal, xo (t )   xo (t )

Putting t = -t in the expression for x(t), we may write,
x(t )  xe (t )  xo (t )
 xe (t )  xo (t )

Solving for xe (t ) and xo (t ) , we thus obtain,

1 1
xe (t )  x (t )  x ( t ) and xo (t )  x (t )  x ( t ) 
2 2 10
Cont’d…

11
Example 1.1: Even and Odd Signals.

Find the even and odd components of each of the following signals:

12
1.2.3 Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals.

Periodic Signal.
 A periodic signal x(t) is a function of time that satisfies the
condition
x t   x t  T  for all t ,
where T is a positive constant.
 The smallest value of T that satisfy the definition is called a period.

Figure 1.6: Aperiodic Signal. Figure 1.7: Periodic Signal. 13

1.2.4 Deterministic and Random Signals.

Deterministic Signal.
 A deterministic signal is a signal that is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.
 The deterministic signal can be modeled as completely specified
function of time.

Figure 1.8: Deterministic Signal; Square Wave.

14
Cont’d…
Random Signal.
 A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty
before it occurs. The signal may be viewed as belonging to an
ensemble or a group of signals which each signal in the ensemble
having a different waveform.
 The signal amplitude fluctuates between positive and negative in a
randomly fashion.
 Example; noise generated by amplifier of a radio or television.

Figure 1.9: Random Signal 15

1.2.5 Energy Signal and Power Signals.

Energy Signal.

E  n
x 2

n  

 A signal is refer to energy signal if and only if the total energy

satisfy the condition;
0E

N 1
1
Power Signal. P
N
 n 
x
n0
2

 A signal is refer to power signal if and only if the average power

of signal satisfy the condition;
0P 16
1.3 Basic Operation of the Signals.
1.3.1 Time Scaling.
1.3.2 Reflection and Folding.
1.3.3 Time Shifting.
1.3.4 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling.

17
1.3.1 Time Scaling.
 Time scaling refers to the multiplication of the variable by a real
y t   x at 
positive constant.

 If a > 1 the signal y(t) is a compressed version of x(t).

 If 0 < a < 1 the signal y(t) is an expanded version of x(t).
 Example:

Figure 1.11: Time-scaling operation; continuous-time signal x(t),

(b) version of x(t) compressed by a factor of 2, and
(c) version of x(t) expanded by a factor of 2. 18
 Cont’d…
 In the discrete time,

yn   xkn,

 It is defined for integer value of k, k > 1. Figure below for k = 2,

sample for n = +-1,

Figure 1.12: Effect of time scaling on a discrete-time signal:

(a) discrete-time signal x[n] and (b) version of x[n] compressed by a factor of 2, with
some values of the original x[n] lost as a result of the compression.

19
1.3.2 Reflection and Folding.
 Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal and y(t) is the signal
obtained by replacing time t with –t;

y t   x t 
 y(t) is the signal represents a reflected version of x(t) about t = 0.
 Two special cases for continuous and discrete-time signal;
(i) Even signal; x(-t) = x(t) an even signal is same as reflected
version.
(ii) Odd signal; x(-t) = -x(t) an odd signal is the negative of its
reflected version.

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Example 1.2: Reflection.
Given the triangular pulse x(t), find the reflected version of x(t) about
the amplitude axis (origin).
Solution:
Replace the variable t with –t, so we get y(t) = x(-t) as in figure below.

Figure 1.13: Operation of reflection: (a) continuous-time signal x(t) and

(b) reflected version of x(t) about the origin

x(t) = 0 for t < -T1 and t > T2.

y(t) = 0 for t > T1 and t < -T2.

.
21
 1.3.3 Time Shifting.
 A time shift delay or advances the signal in time by a time interval
+t0 or –t0, without changing its shape.
y(t) = x(t - t0)
 If t0 > 0 the waveform of y(t) is obtained by shifting x(t)
toward the right, relative to the time axis.
 If t0 < 0, x(t) is shifted to the left.
Example:

Figure 1.14: Shift to the Left. Figure 1.15: Shift to the Right.
Q: How does the x(t) signal looks like? 22
Example 1.3: Time Shifting.
Given the rectangular pulse x(t) of unit amplitude and unit duration.
Find y(t)=x (t - 2)

Solution:
t0 is equal to 2 time units. Shift x(t) to the right by 2 time units.

Figure 1.16: Time-shifting operation:

(a) continuous-time signal in the form of a rectangular pulse of amplitude 1.0 and
duration 1.0, symmetric about the origin; and
(b) time-shifted version of x(t) by 2 time shifts.
23
.
1.3.4 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling.

 Time shifting operation is performed first on x(t), which results in

 Time shift has replace t in x(t) by t - b.

 Time scaling operation is performed on v(t), replacing t by at and
resulting in,
y t   v at 
y t   x at  b 
 Example in real-life: Voice signal recorded on a tape recorder;
 (a > 1) tape is played faster than the recording rate, resulted in
compression.
 (a < 1) tape is played slower than the recording rate, resulted
24
in expansion.
Example 1.4: Continuous Signal.

A CT signal is shown in Figure 1.17 below, sketch and label each of

this signal;

a) x(t -1)
x(t)
b) x(2t)
c) x(-t) 2

-1 3

Figure 1.17
25
Solution: x(t)
(a) x(t -1) (b) x(2t)
x(t-1)

2
2

t t

0 4 -1/2 3/2

(c) x(-t)
x(-t)

t
-3 1

26
Example 1.5: Discrete Time Signal.

A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown below,

Sketch and label each of the following signal.

(a) x[n – 2] (b) x[2n]

(c.) x[-n+2] (d) x[-n]
x[n]

0 1 2 3 n

27
Cont’d…
(a) A discrete-time signal, x[n-2].

 A delay by 2
x[n-2]

0 1 2 3 4 5 n

28
Cont’d…
(b) A discrete-time signal, x[2n].

Time scaling by a factor of 2.

x(2n)

0 1 2 3 n

29
Cont’d…
(c) A discrete-time signal, x[-n+2].

Time shifting and reflection

x(-n+2)

-1 0 1 2 n

30
Cont’d…
(d) A discrete-time signal, x[-n].

 Reflection
x(-n)

-3 -2 -1 0 1 n

31
In Class Exercises .
A continuous-time signal x(t) is shown below, Sketch and label each
of the following signal

(a) x(t – 2) (b) x(2t) (c.) x(t/2) (d) x(-t)

x(t)

0 4 t

32
 1.4 Elementary Signals.

 There are many types of signals prominently used in the study of

signals and systems.
1.4.1 Exponential Signals.
1.4.2 Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signals.
1.4.3 Step Function.
1.4.4 Impulse Function.
1.4.5 Ramp Function.

33
 1.4.1 Exponential Signals.
 A real exponential signal, is written as x(t) = Beat.
 Where both B and a are real parameters. B is the amplitude of the
exponential signal measured at time t = 0.
(i) Decaying exponential, for which a < 0.
(ii) Growing exponential, for which a > 0.

Figure 1.18: (a) Decaying exponential form of continuous-time signal. (b)

Growing exponential form of continuous-time signal.

Figure 1.19: (a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal.

34
(b) Growing exponential form of discrete-time signal.
Cont’d…
Continuous-Time.
 Case a = 0: Constant signal x(t) =C.
 Case a > 0: The exponential tends to infinity as t infinity.

Case a > 0 Case a < 0

 Case a < 0: The exponential tend to zero as t infinity
(here C > 0).

35
Cont’d…
Discrete-Time.
xn  Bea n
where B and a are real.
There are six cases to consider apart from a = 0.
 Case 1 (a = 0): Constant signal x[n]=B.
 Case 2 (a > 1): positive signal that grows exponentially.

 Case 3 (0 < a < 1): The signal is positive and decays exponentially.

36
Cont’d…
 Case 4 (a < 1): The signal alternates between positive and negative
values and grows exponentially.

 Case 5 (a = -1): The signal alternates between +C and -C.

 Case 6 (-1 < a <0): The signal alternates between positive and
negative values and decays exponentially.

37
1.4.2 Sinusoidal Signals.
 A general form of sinusoidal signal is

xt  Acoswot q or x(t)  Asin(w0t q)

 where A is the amplitude, wo is the frequency in radians per
second, and q is the phase angle in radians.

Figure 1.20: Continuous-Time Sinusoidal signal A cos(ω0t + θ).

38
Cont’d…
 Discrete time version of sinusoidal signal, written as

Figure 1.21: Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal A cos(ωt + Φ).

39
1.4.3 Sinusoidal and Complex Exponential Signals.

jq
 Complex exponential, e
 Euler’s Identity, e jq  cos q  j sin q
 Complex exponential signal, Be jwt
 Where, B  Ae j
 Hence, Be jwt  Ae j e jwt
j w t  
 Ae
 Acos w t     jA sin w t   
 Thus, in terms of real and imaginary parts;

 
A coswt     Re Be j wt

A sin wt     ImBe  jw t

40
1.4.3 Sinusoidal and Complex Exponential Signals.

 Continuous time sinusoidal signals,

x t   ASin wt   
 
ACos wt     Re Be jwt
ASin wt     ImBe  jw t

 In the discrete time case,

 
ACos n     Re Be jt
ASin n     ImBe  j t

41
Cont’d…

Figure 1.22: Complex plane, showing eight points uniformly distributed on the
unit circle.

42
1.4.4 Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signals.

 Multiplication of a sinusoidal signal by a real-value decaying

exponential signal result in an exponential damped sinusoidal
signal.
x t   Ae a t sin wt   , a  0

 Where ASin(wt + ) is the continuous signal and e-at is the

exponential

Figure 1.23: Exponentially damped

sinusoidal signal Ae-at sin(ωt), with
A = 60 and α = 6.

 Observe that in Figure 1.23, an increased in time t, the amplitude

of the sinusoidal oscillation decrease in an exponential fashion and
finally approaching zero for infinite time. 43
1.4.5 Step Function.
 The discrete-time version of the unit-step function is defined
by,
1, n0
u n   
0, n0

Figure 1.24: Discrete–time of Step Function of Unit Amplitude.

44
Cont’d…
 The continuous-time version of the unit-step function is defined
by,
1, t 0
u t   
0, t  0

Figure 1.25: Continuous-time of step function of unit amplitude.

 The discontinuity exhibit at t = 0 and the value of u(t) changes
instantaneously from 0 to 1 when t = 0. That is the reason why u(0)
is undefined.
45
1.4.6 Impulse Function.
 The discrete-time version of the unit impulse is defined by,

1, n  0
d n  
0, n  0

Figure 1.26: Discrete-Time form of Impulse.

 Figure 1.41 is a graphical description of the unit impulse d(t).
 The continuous-time version of
the unit impulse is defined by d t   0 for t  0
the following pair, and


 d t dt  1


 The d(t) is also refer as the Dirac Delta function. 46

Cont’d…
 Figure 1.27 is a graphical description of the continuous-time unit
impulse d(t).

Figure 1.27: (a) Evolution of a rectangular pulse of unit area into an impulse of unit
strength (i.e., unit impulse). (b) Graphical symbol for unit impulse. (c)
Representation of an impulse of strength a that results from allowing the duration
Δ of a rectangular pulse of area a to approach zero.
 The duration of the pulse, (t) decreased and its amplitude is
increased. The area under the pulse is maintained constant at
unity.

47
1.4.7 Ramp Function.
 The integral of the step function u(t) is a ramp function of unit
slope.
 t , t  0
r t   
0, t  0
or
r t   tu t 
Figure 1.28: Ramp Function of Unite Slope.
 The discrete-time version of the ramp function,
n, n  0
r n   
0, n  0

r n   nu n 

Figure 1.29: Discrete-Time Version of the Ramp Function.

48
Successive Integration of Unit Impulse Function.

49
1.5 What is a System ?
 A system can be viewed as an interconnection of operation that
transfer an input signal into an output signal with properties
different from those of the input signal.

 y(t) is the impulse response of the continuous-time system and

y[n] is the impulse response of the discrete-time system.

50
Cont’d…
 Real life example of system;
(i) In automatic speaker recognition system; the system is to extract
the information from an incoming speech signal for the purpose of
recognizing and identifying the speaker.
(ii) In communication system; the system will transport the the
information contained in the message over a communication
channel and deliver that information to the destination.

Figure 1.30: Elements of a communication system.

Figure 1.31: Block diagram representation of a system.

51
Cont’d…

 By definition, a system is an entity that manipulates one or

more signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding new
signals.
 A physical process or a mathematical model of the physical process
that relates a set of input signals to yield another set of output
signal.
 Process input signals to produce output signals
 System representation of the systems.

52
(III) Block Diagram Using Integrators, Adders and Gain.

Electronic synthesis of block diagram

 The integrator, adder, and gain blocks are other examples of
functional descriptions of systems. We can produce a
structural model of each of these blocks. For example, the
gain block is easily synthesized with an op-amp circuit.

53
 1.5.1 System Block Diagram.
 System may be interconnections of other system.

 Cascade interconnection.

 Parallel interconnection.

 Feedback interconnection.

54

Eg. Car cruise control system.

1.6 Properties of Systems.
 The properties of a system describe the characteristics of the
operator H representing the system.
 Basic properties of the system;
1.6.1 Stability.
1.6.2 Memory.
1.6.3 Causality.
1.6.4 Inevertibility.
1.6.5 Time Invariance.
1.6.6 Linearity.

55
1.6.1 Stability.
 A system is said to be bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO)
stable if and only if all bounded inputs result in bounded outputs.
The output of the system does not diverge if the input does not
diverge.

 For the resistor, if i(t) is bounded then so is v(t), but for the
capacitance this is not true. Consider i(t) = u(t) then v(t) = tu(t)
which is unbounded.

56
1.6.2 Memory.
 A system is said to possess memory if its output signal depend on
pass or future values of the input signal.

 Note that v(t) depends not just on i(t) at one point in time t.
Therefore, the system that relates v to i exhibits memory.
 The system is said to be memoryless if its output signal depends
only on the present value of the input signal.
 Example: The resistive divider network

 Therefore, vo(to) depends upon the value of vi(to) and not on vi(t)
for t = to. 57
Example 1.6: Memory and Memoryless System.

Below is the moving-average system described by the input-output

relation. Does it has memory or not?
(a) 1
y n   xn   xn  1  xn  2
3

(b) y n   x 2 n 

Solution:
(a) It has memory, the value of the output signal y[n] at time n depends
on the present and two pass values of x[n].

(b) It is memoryless, because the value of the output signal y[n]

depends only on the present value of the input signal x[n].

58
1.6.3 Causality.
Causal.
 A system is said to be casual if the present value of the output
signal depends only on the present or the past values of the input
signal. The system cannot anticipate the input.

Noncausal.
 In contrast, the output signal of a noncausal system depends on
one or more future values of the input signal.
59
Example 1.7: Causal and Noncausal.

y n   xn  1  xn   xn  1

1
3
Causal or noncausal?
Solution:
Noncausal; the output signal y[n] depends on a future value of the
input signal, x[n+1]

y n  
1
xn  1  xn  xn  1
3

Causality is required for a system to be capable of operating in real

time.
.

60
1.6.4 Inevitability.
 A system is said to be invertible if the input of the system can be
recovered from the output.

H inv y t   H inv H x t 

 H inv H x t 

Figure 1.32: The notion of system inevitability. The second operator Hinv is the
inverse of the first operator H. Hence, the input x(t) is passed through the
cascade correction of H and H-1 completely unchanged.

61
1.6.5 Time Invariance.
 A system is said to be time invariant if the time delay or time
advance of the input signal leads to an identical time shift in the
output signal.
 The Time invariance system responds identically no mater when
the input signal is applied.

HS t 0  S t 0 H

Figure 1.33: (a) Time-shift operator St0 preceding operator H. (b) Time-shift operator
St0 following operator H. These two situations are equivalent, provided that H is
time invariant

62
1.6.6 Linearity.
 A system is said to be linear in term of the system input
(excitation) x(t) and the system output (response) y(t) if it satisfies
the following two properties.

1. Superposition
 The system is initially at rest. The input is x(t)=x1(t), the
output y(t)=y1(t). So x(t)=x1(t)+x2(t) the corresponding
output y(t)=y1(t)+y2(t).

2. Homogeneity/Scaling
 The system is initially at rest. Input x(t) result in y(t). The
system exhibit the property of homogeneity if x(t) scaled by
constant factor a result in output y(t) is scaled by exact
constant a.

63
Cont’d…

Figure 1.34: The linearity property of a system. (a) The combined operation of
amplitude scaling and summation precedes the operator H for multiple
inputs.
(b) The operator H precedes amplitude scaling for each input; the resulting
outputs are summed to produce the overall output y(t). If these two
configurations produce the same output y(t), the operator H is linear.

 If the system violates either of the properties the system is said

to be nonlinear.
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Cont’d…
Example 1.8: Linearity.

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Cont’d…
Solution:

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Cont’d…

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Thank You

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