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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

EXPERIMENT 01

Aim: Introduction to database, installation of MYSQL and creation of database.

DATABASE :
A database is a collection of data that is organized, which is also called structured
data. It can be accessed or stored in a computer system. It can be managed
through a Database Management System (DBMS), a software used to manage
data. Database refers to related data in a structured form.
In a database, data is organized into tables consisting of rows and columns and it
is indexed so data can be updated, expanded, and deleted easily. Computer
databases typically contain file records data like transactions money in one bank
account to another bank account, sales and customer details, fee details of
students, and product details. There are different kinds of databases, ranging from
the most prevalent approach, the relational database, to a distributed database,
cloud database, and NoSQL databases.

Types of Databases :

Relational Databases: A relational database’s contents are arranged as a

collection of tables with rows and columns. Accessing structured data is made
most flexible and efficient by relational database technology.

Object-Oriented Databases: Similar to object-oriented programming, data in an

object-oriented database is represented as objects.

Distributed Databases: A distributed database is made up of two or more files

that are spread across multiple locations. The database could be dispersed across
many networks, housed in one physical place, or kept on several computers.

Data Warehouses: A data warehouse is a sort of database created especially for

quick query and analysis. It is a central repository for data.
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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

NoSQL Databases: Unlike relational databases, which specify how all data
input must be formatted, NoSQL, or non relational databases, permit the storing
and manipulation of unstructured and semistructured data. The prevalence and
complexity of online applications led to the rise in popularity of NoSQL
databases.

Graph Databases: Data is stored in a graph database using entities and their
relationships.

OLTP Database: An OLTP database is a quick, analytical database made to

handle lots of transactions from several users at once.

Open source databases: A database system that is open source can have
either a SQL or NoSQL database as its source code.

Cloud databases: A collection of organized or unorganized data that is housed

on a private, public, or hybrid cloud computing platform is known as a cloud
database. Cloud database models come in two flavours traditional
and database as a service (DBaaS) . With DBaaS, a service provider handles
maintenance and administrative duties.
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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

CREATION OF DATABASE :

STEP 01: Export oracle home

STEP 02 : Go in bin directory

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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

STEP 03 : Run Oracle Database Configuration Assistant

STEP 04 : Select create database

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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

STEP 05 : Select advance configuration

STEP 06 : Select template general purpose

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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

STEP 07 : Enter database name

STEP 08 : Select datasystem and file location

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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

STEP 09 : Enable database security

STEP 10 : Define SGA and Character Set and Sample Schemas

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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

STEP 11 : Set Password for the SYS and SYSTEM USERS

STEP 12 : Customise Data file, Control file and Redo file Location
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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

STEP 13: Password management

STEP 14 : Database created successfully

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Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

INSTALLATION OF MYSQL :
STEP 1: OPEN GOOGLE AND SEARCH MYSQL
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment No.2

Theory and Concept

Objective: Creating tables and writing Queries in SQL.

Theory & Concepts:

Introduction about SQL-

SQL (Structured Questionary Language) is a nonprocedural language, you specify what you want, not how to
get it. A block structured format of English key words is used in this Questionary language. It has the following
components.

DDL (Data Definition Language)-

The SQL DDL provides command for defining relation schemas, deleting relations and modifying relation schema.

DML (DATA Manipulation Language)-

It includes commands to insert tuples into, delete tuples from and modify tuples in the database.

View definition-
The SQL DDL includes commands for defining views.
Transaction Control- SQL includes for specifying the beginning and ending of transactions.

Embedded SQL and Dynamic SQL-

Embedded and Dynamic SQL define how SQL statements can be embedded with in general purpose
programming languages, such as C, C++, JAVA, COBOL, Pascal and Fortran.

Integrity-
The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying integrity constraints that the data stored in the database must specify.
Updates that violate integrity constraints are allowed.

Authorization-
The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying access rights to relations and views.

Data Definition Language-

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

The SQL DDL allows specification of not only a set of relations but also information about each relation,
including-
● Schema for each relation
● The domain of values associated with each attribute. ● The integrity constraints.
● The set of indices to be maintained for each relation.
● The security and authorization information for each relation. ● The physical storage structure of each
relation on disk.
Domain types in SQL-

The SQL standard supports a variety of built in domain types, including● Char (n)- A
fixed length character length string with user specified length .
● Varchar (n)- A variable character length string with user specified maximum length n.
● Int- An integer.
● Small integer- A small integer.
● Numeric (p, d)-A Fixed point number with user defined precision.
● Real, double precision- Floating point and double precision floating point numbers with machine
dependent precision.
● Float (n)- A floating point number, with precision of at least n digits.
● Date- A calendar date containing a (four digit) year, month and day of the month.
● Time- The time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds Eg. Time ’09:30:00’. ● Number- Number is used
to store numbers (fixed or floating point). DDL statement for creating a table-

Syntax-

Create table tablename

(columnname datatype(size), columnname datatype(size)); Creating a table
from a table-

Syntax-

CREATE TABLE TABLENAME [(columnname, columnname, ………)]

AS SELECT columnname, columnname FROM tablename;

Insertion of data into tables-

Syntax-
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

INSERT INTO tablename
[(columnname, columnname, ………)] Values(expression, expression); Inserting

data into a table from another table:

Syntax-
INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnname,
columnname,
…….
FROM tablename;

Insertion of selected data into a table from another table:

Syntax-
INSERT INTO tablename
SELECT columnname, columnname… FROM tablename
WHERE columnname= expression;
Retrieving of data from the tables-

Syntax-
SELECT * FROM tablename;
The retrieving of specific columns from a table-
Syntax-
SELECT columnname, columnname, ….
FROM tablename;
Elimination of duplicates from the select statement-

Syntax-

SELECT DISTINCT columnname, columnname

FROM tablename; Selecting a data set from
table data-
Syntax-
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

WHERE searchcondition;

Q1. Create the following tables:

i) client_master

columnname datatype size client_no varchar2 6

name varchar2 20 address1 varchar2 30 address2
varchar2 30 city varchar2 15 state varchar2 15
pincode number 6
bal_due number 10,2
ii) Product_master
Columnname datatype size
Product_no varchar2
Description
Profit_percent varchar2
varchar2 number number
Unit_measure number number
Qty_on_hand
Reoder_lvl
Sell_price
Cost_price
Q2- Insert the following data into their respective tables:

Clientno Name city pincode state bal.due

Maharashtra 15000

0001 Ivan Bombay 400054 Tamilnadu 0

Q3:- On the
0002 Vandana Madras 780001 Maharashtra
5000 basis of above
0003 Pramada Bombay 400057 two tables answer
Maharashtra 0
0004 Basu Bombay 400056 the following
2000 Queries:
0005 Ravi Delhi 100001
Maharashtra 0
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

0006 Rukmini Bombay 400050 i) Find out

the names of all
the clients.
Qty ii) Retrieve
Data for Product Master:
on Sell the list of names
Product No. Desciption Profit % Unit
Percent measured han and cities of all
pric the clients. iii)
e List the various
d 525 Cost products
P00001 1.44floppies 5 piece available
P03453 Reorde
Monitors 6 piece 100 price from
P06734 Mouse 5 piece r lvl the
10
P07865 1.22 floppies 5 piece product_m
20
P07868 Keyboards 2 piece aster 500 table.
100 20
P07885 CD Drive 2.5 piece 12000 11200iv) List all
10 3
P07965 540 HDD 4 piece 1 5 the 1050
P07975 1.44 Drive 5 piece 0 20 500clients
P08865 1.22 Drive 5 piece 1 3 who are 525
0 3
500located in
vii) viii) 10 3
2 3 Bombay.
with description as ‘1.44 drive’ and ‘1.22 Drive’. 3 3150 3050v) Display
Find all the products whose sell price is greater than 5000. the
5250 5100information fo
client 8400 8000no 0001
and 0002.
1050 1000vi) Find the
1050 1000 products
Find the list of all clients who stay in city ‘Bombay’ or city ‘Delhi’ or ‘Madras’. ix)
Find the product whose selling price is greater than 2000 and less than or equal to 5000.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

x) List the name, city and state of clients not in the state of ‘Maharashtra’.

OUTPUT
1 i)

ii)

2 i)

ii)

3 i)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

ii)

iii)

iv)
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Department of Computer Science & Engineering

v)

vi)

vii)

viii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

ix)

x)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment No.3

Theory and Concept

Objective:- To implement various DML Operations on table.

DML ( Data Manipulation Language) Data manipulation is

● The retrieval of information stored in the database.

● The insertion of new information into the database.
● The deletion of information from the database.
● The modification of information stored by the appropriate data model. There are basically two types.
(i) Procedural DML:- require a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data.
(ii) Non Procedural DML : require a user to specify what data are needed without specifying how to get
those data.

Updating the content of a table:

In creation situation we may wish to change a value in table without changing all values in the tuple . For this
purpose the update statement can be used.

Update table name

Set columnname = experision, columnname =expression…… Where columnname = expression;

Deletion Operation:-
A delete reQuestionst is expressed in much the same way as Questionry. We can delete whole tuple ( rows) we
can delete values on only particulars attributes. Deletion of all rows Syntax: Delete from tablename :

Deletion of specified number of rows Syntax:

Delete from table name
Where search condition ;

Computation in expression lists used to select data

+ Addition - Subtraction
* multiplication ** exponentiation
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

/ Division () Enclosed
operation
Renaming columns used with Expression Lists: - The default output column names can be renamed by the user if
required Syntax:
Select column name result_columnname,
Columnname result_columnname,
From table name;
Logical Operators:
The logical operators that can be used in SQL sentenced are

AND all of must be included

OR any of may be included
NOT none of could be included

Range Searching: Between operation is used for range searching. Pattern

Searching:

The most commonly used operation on string is pattern matching using the operation ‘like’ we describe patterns
by using two special characters.

● Percent (%) ; the % character matches any substring we consider the following
examples.
● ‘Perry %’ matches any string beginning with perry ● ‘% idge % matches any string
containing’ idge as substring.
● ‘ - - - ‘ matches any string exactly three characters.
● ‘ - - - % matches any string of at least of three characters. Oracle functions:

Functions are used to manipulate data items and return result. function follow the format of function _name
(argument1, argument2 ..) .An arrangement is user defined variable or constant. The structure of function is such that
it accepts zero or more arguments.
Examples:
Avg return average value of n

Syntax:
Avg ([distinct/all]n)
Min return minimum value of expr.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Syntax:
MIN((distict/all )expr)
Count Returns the no of rows where expr is not null Syntax:
Count ([distinct/all)expr]
Count (*) Returns the no rows in the table, including duplicates and those with nulls.
Max Return max value of expr

Syntax:
Max ([distinct/all]expr)
Sum Returns sum of values of n

Syntax:
Sum ([distinct/all]n)

Sorting of data in table Syntax:

Select columnname, columnname
From table
Order by columnname;

Question.1 Using the table client master and product master answer the following Queries.

i. Change the selling price of ‘1.44 floppy drive to Rs.1150.00 ii.

Delete the record with client 0001 from the client master table. iii.
Change the city of client_no’0005’ to Bombay. iv. Change the bal_due of
client_no ‘0001, to 1000.
v. Find the products whose selling price is more than 1500 and also find the new selling price as
original selling price *15.
vi. Find out the clients who stay in a city whose second letter is a. vii. Find out the name of all
clients having ‘a’ as the second letter in their names. viii. List the products in sorted
order of their description.
ix. Count the total number of orders
x. Calculate the average price of all the products. xi. Calculate the minimum
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

price of products. xii. Determine the maximum and minimum prices . Rename the tittle as ‘max_price’ and

i)

min_price respectively.
xiii. Count the number of products having price greater than or equal to 1500.

OUTPUT:
ii)

iii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

iv)

v)

vi)

Vii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

viii)

ix)

x)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

xi)

xii)

xiii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment No.4

Theory and Concept

Objective:- To Implement the restrictions/constraints on the table.

Data constraints: Besides the cell name, cell length and cell data type there are other parameters i.e. other data
constrains that can be passed to the DBA at check creation time. The constraints can either be placed at column level
or at the table level.

i. Column Level Constraints: If the constraints are defined along with the column definition, it is called
a column level constraint.
ii. Table Level Constraints: If the data constraint attached to a specify cell in a table reference the contents
of another cell in the table then the user will have to use table level constraints.

Null Value Concepts:- while creating tables if a row locks a data value for particular column that value
is said to be null . Column of any data types may contain null values unless the column was defined as
not null when the table was created Syntax:

Create table tablename

(columnname data type (size) not null ……)

Primary Key: primary key is one or more columns is a table used to uniquickly identity each row in the
table. Primary key values must not be null and must be uniQuestion across the column. A multicolumn
primary key is called composite primary key.

Syntax: primary key as a column constraint Create table tablename

(columnname datatype (size) primary key,….)
Primary key as a table constraint
Create table tablename
(columnname datatype (size), columnname datatype( size)… Primary key (columnname,columnname));

UniQuestion key concept:-A uniQuestion is similar to a primary key except that the purpose of a
uniQuestion key is to ensure that information in the column for each record is uniQuestion as with
telephone or devices license numbers. A table may have many uniQuestion keys.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Syntax: UniQuestion as a column constraint. Create table table

name
(columnname datatype (size) uniQuestion); UniQuestion as table constraint:
Create table tablename
(columnname datatype (size),columnname datatype (size)…uniQuestion
(columnname,columnname));

Default value concept: At the line of cell creation a default value can be assigned to it. When the user is
loading a record with values and leaves this cell empty, the DBA wil automatically
load this cell with the default value specified. The data type of the default value should match the data
type of the column

Syntax:
Create table tablename
(columnname datatype (size) default value,….);

Foreign Key Concept : Foreign key represents relationship between tables. A foreign key is column
whose values are derived from the primary key of the same of some other table . the existence of foreign
key implies that the table with foreign key is related to the primary key table from which the foreign key
is derived .A foreign key must have corresponding primary key value in the primary key table to have
meaning. Foreign key as a column constraint

Syntax :
Create table table name
(columnname datatype (size) references another table name); Foreign key as a

table constraint:

Syntax :
Create table name (columnname datatype
(size)…. primary key (columnname); foreign key
(columnname)references table name);

Check Integrity Constraints: Use the check constraints when you need to enforce intergrity rules that
can be evaluated based on a logical expression following are a few examples of appropriate check
constraints.
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Department of Computer Science & Engineering

● A check constraints name column of the coient_master so that the name is entered in upper case. ● A check
constraint on the client_no column of the client _master so that no client_no value starts with ‘c’
Syntax:
Create table tablename
(columnname datatype (size) CONSTRAINT constraintname)
Check (expression));

Question.2 Create the following tables:

i. Sales_master
Columnname Datatype Size Attributes

Salesman_no varchar2 6 Primary key/first

letter must start with
‘s’
Sal_name varchar2 20 Not null

Address varchar2 Not null

City varchar2 20

State varchar2 20

Pincode Number 6
Sal_amt Number 8,2 Not null, cannot be 0

Tgt_to_get Number 6,2 Not null, cannot be 0

Ytd_sales Number 6,2 Not null, cannot be 0

Remarks Varchar2 30

ii. Sales_order
Columnname Datatype Size Attributes

S_order_no varchar2 6 Primary/first letter must be 0

S_order_date Date 6 Primary key reference clientno of

client_master table
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Client_no Varchar2 25

Dely_add Varchar2 6

Salesman_no Varchar2 6 Foreign key references

salesman_no of salesman_master
table

Dely_type Char 1 Delivery part(p)/full(f),default f

Billed_yn Char 1

Dely_date Date Can not be lessthan s_order_date

Order_status Varchar2 10 Values (‘in

process’;’fulfilled’;back
order’;’canceled
I. Sales_order_details
Column Datatype Size Attributes

S_order_no Varchar2 6 Primary key/foreign key

references s_order_no of
sales_order

Product_no Varchar2 6 Primary key/foreign key

references product_no
of product_master

Qty_order Number 8

Qty_disp Number 8

Product_rate Number 10,2

Insert the following data into their respective tables using insert statement:

Data for sales_man master table

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Salesman_no Salesman Address City Pin code State Salamt Tgt Ytd Remark
name _ Sales
to_g
et

500001 Kiran A/14 worli Bomba 400002 Mah 3000 100 50 Good
y

500002 Manish 65,nariman Bomba 400001 Mah 3000 200 100 Good
y

500003 Ravi P-7 Bandra Bomba 400032 Mah 3000 200 100 Good
y

500004 Ashish A/5 Juhu Bomba 400044 Mah 3500 200 150 Good
y
Data for salesorder table:
S_orderno S_orderdate Client no Dely Bill yn Salesman no Delay Orderstatus
type date

019001 12-jan-96 0001 F N 50001 20-jan-96 Ip

019002 25-jan-96 0002 P N 50002 27-jan-96 C

016865 18-feb-96 0003 F Y 500003 20-feb-96 F

019003 03-apr-96 0001 F Y 500001 07-apr-96 F

046866 20-may-96 0004 P N 500002 22-may- C

96

010008 24-may-96 0005 F N 500004 26-may- Ip

96
(iii)
Data for sales_order_details table:
S_order no Product no Qty ordered Qty disp Product_rate

019001 P00001 4 4 525

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

019001 P07965 2 1 8400

019001 P07885 2 1 5250

019002 P00001 10 0 525

046865 P07868 3 3 3150

046865 P07885 10 10 5250

019003 P00001 4 4 1050

019003 P03453 2 2 1050

046866 P06734 1 1 12000

046866 P07965 1 0 8400

010008 P07975 1 0 1050

010008 P00001 10 5 525

OUTPUT:
Creation i)

ii)

iii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Insertion i)

ii)

iii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment No.5

Theory and Concept

Objective:- To Alter the structure of the table

Modifying the Structure of Tables-

Alter table command is used to changing the structure of a table. Using the alter table clause you cannot perform
the following tasks:

(i) change the name of table

(ii) change the name of column
(iii) drop a column
(iv) decrease the size of a table if table data exists. The following tasks you can perform through alter

table command.

(i) Adding new columns: Syntax

ALTER TABLE tablename
ADD (newcolumnname newdatatype (size));

(ii) Modifying existing table

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename
MODIFY (newcolumnname newdatatype (size));

NOTE: Oracle not allow constraints defined using the alter table, if the data in the table, violates such constraints.

Removing/Deleting Tables- Following command is used for removing or deleting a table.

Syntax:
DROP TABLE tabename:

Defining Integrity constraints in the ALTER TABLE command-

You can also define integrity constraints using the constraint clause in the ALTER TABLE command. The
following examples show the definitions of several integrity constraints.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

(1) Add PRIMARY KEY-
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE tablename

ADD PRIMARY KEY(columnname);
(1) Add FOREIGN KEY-

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename
ADD CONSTRAINT constraintname
FOREIGN KEY(columnname) REFERENCES tablename;

Droping integrity constraints in the ALTER TABLE command:

You can drop an integrity constraint if the rule that if enforces is no longer true or if the constraint is no longer needed.
Drop the constraint using the ALTER TABLE command with the DROP clause. The following examples illustrate the
droping of integrity constraints.

(1) DROP the PRIMARY KEY-

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP PRIMARY KEY

(2) DROP FOREIGN KEY-

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename
DROP CONSTRAINT constraintname;

Question 1. Create the following tables: Challan_Header

Column name data type size Attributes
Challan_no varchar2 6 Primary key
s_order_no varchar2 6 Foreign key references s_order_no of
sales_order table
challan_date date billed_yn not null
char

Table Name : Challan_Details 1 values (‘Y’,’N’). Default ‘N’

Column name data type size Attributes
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Challan_no varchar2 6 Primary key/Foreign key references

Product_no of product_master
Qty_disp number 4,2 not null
Q2. Insert the following values into the challan header and challan_details tables:

(i) Challan No S_order No Challan Date Billed

CH9001 019001 12-DEC-95 Y
CH865 046865 12-NOV-95 Y
CH3965 010008 12-OCT-95 Y

Data for challan_details table

Challan No Product No Qty Disp

CH9001 P00001 4
CH9001 P07965 1
CH9001 P07885 1
CH6865 P07868 3
CH6865 P03453 4
CH6865 P00001 10
CH3965 P00001 5
CH3965 P07975 2
Objective – Answer the following Queries

Q1. Make the primary key to client_no in client_master.

Q2. Add a new column phone_no in the client_master table.
Q3. Add the not null constraint in the product_master table with the columns description, profit percent , sell price
and cost price.
Q4. Change the size of client_no field in the client_master table.
Q5. Select product_no, description where profit percent is between 20 and 30 both inclusive.

OUTPUT

1
i)
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Department of Computer Science & Engineering

ii)

2
i)

ii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

3
i)

ii)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment No.6

Theory & Concept

Objective:- To implement the concept of Joins
Joint Multiple Table (Equi Join): Some times we require to treat more than one table as though manipulate
data from all the tables as though the tables were not separate object but one single entity. To achieve this we
have to join tables.Tables are joined on column that have dame data type and data with in tables.

The tables that have to be joined are specified in the FROM clause and the joining attributes in the WHERE clause.

Algorithm for JOIN in SQL:

1. Cartesian product of tables (specified in the FROM clause) 2. Selection of rows

that match (predicate in the WHERE clause)
3. Project column specified in the SELECT clause.

1. Cartesian product:-
Consider two table student and course Select
B.*,P.*
FROM student B, course P;

2. INNER JOIN:
Cartesian product followed by selection
Select B.*,P.*
FROM student B, Course P WHERE
B.course # P.course # ;

3. LEFT OUTER JOIN:

LEFT OUTER JOIN = Cartesian product + selection but include rows from the left table which are
unmatched pat nulls in the values of attributes belonging to th e second table Exam: Select B.*,P*
FROM student B left join course p ON
B.course # P.course #;
4. RIGHT OUTER JOIN:
RIGHT OUTER JOIN = Cartesian product + selection but include rows from right table which are
unmatched
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Exam:
Select B.*,P.*
From student B RIGHT JOIN course P
B.course# = P course # ;

5. FULL OUTER JOIN Exam

Select B.*,P.*
From student B FULL JOIN course P
On B.course # = P course # ;
A. Consider the following schema for a Library Database:

BOOK (Book_id, Title, Publisher_Name, Pub_Year)

BOOK_AUTHORS (Book_id, Author_Name)

PUBLISHER (Name, Address, Phone) BOOK_COPIES

(Book_id, Branch_id, No-of_Copies)

BOOK_LENDING (Book_id, Branch_id, Card_No, Date_Out, Due_Date)

LIBRARY_BRANCH (Branch_id, Branch_Name, Address)

Write SQL queries to :

1. Retrieve details of all books in the library – id, title, name of publisher, authors, number of copies in each
branch, etc.

2. Get the particulars of borrowers who have borrowed more than 3 books, but from Jan 2017 to Jun 2017.

3. Delete a book in BOOK table. Update the contents of other tables to reflect this data manipulation operation.

4. 4. Partition the BOOK table based on year of publication. Demonstrate its working with a simple query.

5. Create a view of all books and its number of copies that are currently available in the Library.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

OUTPUT

1 i)
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

ii)

iii)

iv)

v)
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

\

Table Creation

CREATE TABLE PUBLISHER

(NAME VARCHAR2 (20) PRIMARY KEY,
PHONE INTEGER,

ADDRESS VARCHAR2 (20));

CREATE TABLE BOOK

(BOOK_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,

TITLE VARCHAR2 (20),
PUB_YEAR VARCHAR2 (20),
PUBLISHER_NAME REFERENCES PUBLISHER (NAME) ON DELETE CASCADE
);

CREATE TABLE BOOK_AUTHORS

(AUTHOR_NAME VARCHAR2 (20),

BOOK_ID REFERENCES BOOK (BOOK_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE, PRIMARY KEY (BOOK_ID,

AUTHOR_NAME));

CREATE TABLE LIBRARY_BRANCH (BRANCH_ID

INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
BRANCH_NAME VARCHAR2 (50), ADDRESS
VARCHAR2 (50));

CREATE TABLE BOOK_COPIES

(NO_OF_COPIES INTEGER,
BOOK_ID REFERENCES BOOK (BOOK_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE,
BRANCH_ID REFERENCES LIBRARY_BRANCH (BRANCH_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE, PRIMARY KEY
(BOOK_ID, BRANCH_ID)); CREATE

TABLE CARD

(CARD_NO INTEGER PRIMARY KEY); CREATE

TABLE BOOK_LENDING

(DATE_OUT DATE,
DUE_DATE DATE,
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

BOOK_ID REFERENCES BOOK (BOOK_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE,

BRANCH_ID REFERENCES LIBRARY_BRANCH (BRANCH_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE,
CARD_NO REFERENCES CARD (CARD_NO) ON DELETE CASCADE, PRIMARY KEY (BOOK_ID,
BRANCH_ID, CARD_NO));

Insertion of Values to Tables

INSERT INTO PUBLISHER VALUES (‗MCGRAW-HILL‘, 9989076587, ‗BANGALORE‘); INSERT

INTO PUBLISHER VALUES (‗PEARSON‘, 9889076565, ‗NEWDELHI‘);
INSERT INTO PUBLISHER VALUES (‗RANDOM HOUSE‘, 7455679345, ‗HYDRABAD‘);
INSERT INTO PUBLISHER VALUES (‗HACHETTE LIVRE‘, 8970862340, ‗CHENAI‘); INSERT INTO
PUBLISHER VALUES (‗GRUPO PLANETA‘, 7756120238, ‗BANGALORE‘);

INSERT INTO BOOK VALUES (1,‘DBMS‘,‘JAN-2017‘, ‗MCGRAW-HILL‘);

INSERT INTO BOOK VALUES (2,‘ADBMS‘,‘JUN-2016‘, ‗MCGRAW-HILL‘);

INSERT INTO BOOK VALUES (3,‘CN‘,‘SEP-2016‘, ‗PEARSON‘);
INSERT INTO BOOK VALUES (4,‘CG‘,‘SEP-2015‘, ‗GRUPO PLANETA‘); INSERT
INTO BOOK VALUES (5,‘OS‘,‘MAY-2016‘, ‗PEARSON‘);
INSERT INTO BOOK_AUTHORS VALUES (‘NAVATHE‘, 1); INSERT
INTO BOOK_AUTHORS VALUES (‘NAVATHE‘, 2); INSERT INTO
BOOK_AUTHORS VALUES (‘TANENBAUM‘, 3); INSERT INTO
BOOK_AUTHORS VALUES (‘EDWARD ANGEL‘, 4); INSERT INTO

BOOK_AUTHORS VALUES (‘GALVIN‘, 5);

INSERT INTO LIBRARY_BRANCH VALUES (10,‘RR NAGAR‘,‘BANGALORE‘);

INSERT INTO LIBRARY_BRANCH VALUES (11,‘RNSIT‘,‘BANGALORE‘);
INSERT INTO LIBRARY_BRANCH VALUES (12,‘RAJAJI NAGAR‘, ‘BANGALORE‘);
INSERT INTO LIBRARY_BRANCH VALUES (13,‘NITTE‘,‘MANGALORE‘); INSERT
INTO LIBRARY_BRANCH VALUES (14,‘MANIPAL‘,‘UDUPI‘);

INSERT INTO BOOK_COPIES VALUES (10, 1, 10);

INSERT INTO BOOK_COPIES VALUES (5, 1, 11);
INSERT INTO BOOK_COPIES VALUES (2, 2, 12);
INSERT INTO BOOK_COPIES VALUES (5, 2, 13);
INSERT INTO BOOK_COPIES VALUES (7, 3, 14);
INSERT INTO BOOK_COPIES VALUES (1, 5, 10); INSERT
INTO BOOK_COPIES VALUES (3, 4, 11);
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

INSERT INTO CARD VALUES (100); INSERT

INTO CARD VALUES (101); INSERT INTO
CARD VALUES (102);
INSERT INTO CARD VALUES (103);
INSERT INTO CARD VALUES (104);

INSERT INTO BOOK_LENDING VALUES (‘01-JAN-17‘,‘01-JUN-17‘, 1, 10, 101);

INSERT INTO BOOK_LENDING VALUES (‘11-JAN-17‘,‘11-MAR-17‘, 3, 14, 101);
INSERT INTO BOOK_LENDING VALUES (‘21-FEB-17‘,‘21-APR-17‘, 2, 13, 101);
INSERT INTO BOOK_LENDING VALUES (‘15-MAR-17‘,‘15-JUL-17‘, 4, 11, 101);
INSERT INTO BOOK_LENDING VALUES (‗12-APR-17‘,‘12-MAY-17‘, 1, 11, 104);
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Queries:
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

1. Retrieve details of all books in the library – id, title, name of publisher, authors, number of copies
in each branch, etc.

SELECT B.BOOK_ID, B.TITLE, B.PUBLISHER_NAME, A.AUTHOR_NAME, C.NO_OF_COPIES,

L.BRANCH_ID
FROM BOOK B, BOOK_AUTHORS A, BOOK_COPIES C, LIBRARY_BRANCH L
WHERE B.BOOK_ID=A.BOOK_ID
AND B.BOOK_ID=C.BOOK_ID AND L.BRANCH_ID=C.BRANCH_ID;

2. Get the particulars of borrowers who have borrowed more than 3 books, but from Jan 2017 to Jun
2017.

SELECT CARD_NO FROM BOOK_LENDING

WHERE DATE_OUT BETWEEN ‘01-JAN-2017‘ AND ‘01-JUL-2017‘ GROUP
BY CARD_NO HAVING COUNT (*)>3;
3. Delete a book in BOOK table. Update the contents of other tables to reflect this data manipulation
operation.

DELETE FROM BOOK

WHERE BOOK_ID=3;
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

4. Partition the BOOK table based on year of publication. Demonstrate its working with a simple
query.

CREATE VIEW V_PUBLICATION AS SELECT PUB_YEAR FROM BOOK;

5. Create a view of all books and its number of copies that are currently available in the Library.

CREATE VIEW V_BOOKS AS SELECT B.BOOK_ID, B.TITLE, C.NO_OF_COPIES

FROM BOOK B, BOOK_COPIES C, LIBRARY_BRANCH L
WHERE B.BOOK_ID=C.BOOK_ID AND C.BRANCH_ID=L.BRANCH_ID;

OBJECTIVE: Answer the following Queries:

QUERIES -

1. Find out the product which has been sold to ‘Ivan Sayross.’ 2. Find out the
product and their quantities that will have do delivered.
3. Find the product_no and description of moving products.
4. Find out the names of clients who have purchased ‘CD DRIVE’
5. List the product_no and s_order_no of customers haaving qty ordered less than 5 from the
order details table for the product “1.44 floppies”.
6. Find the products and their quantities for the orders placed by ‘Vandan Saitwal ’ and “Ivan
Bayross”.
7. Find the products and their quantities for the orders placed by client_no “ C00001” and
“C00002”
8. Find the order No,, Client No and salesman No. where a client has been received by more
than one salesman.
9. Display the s_order_date in the format “dd-mm-yy” e.g. “12- feb-96”
10. Find the date , 15 days after date.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

OUTPUT
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment No.7

Theory & Concept

Objective:- To implement the concept of grouping of Data. Grouping Data From Tables:

There are circumstances where we would like to apply the aggregate function not only to a single set of
tuples, but also to a group of sets of tuples, we specify this wish in SQL using the group by clause. The
attribute or attributes given in the group by clause are used to form group. Tuples with the same value on
all attributes in the group by clause are placed in one group.

Syntax:

SELECT columnname, columnname

FROM tablename
GROUP BY columnname;

At times it is useful to state a condition that applies to groups rather than to tuples. For example we might
be interested in only those branches where the average account balance is more than 1200. This condition
does not apply to a single tuple, rather it applies to each group constructed by the GROUP BY clause. To
express such Questionry, we use the having clause of SQL. SQL applies predicates in the having may be
used.

Syntax:

SELECT columnname, columnname

FROM tablename
GROUP BY columnname; HAVING searchcondition;

Objective- Answer the following Queries:

Q1.- Print the description and total quantity sold for each product.

Q2.- Find the value of each product sold.

Q3.- Calculate the average quantity sold for each client that has a maximum order value of 15000.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Q4.- Find out the products which has been sold to Ivan.

Q5.- Find the names of clients who have ‘CD Drive’.

Q6.- Find the products and their quantities for the orders placed by ‘Vandana’ and ‘Ivan’.

Q7.- Select product_no, total qty_ordered for each product.

Q8.- Select product_no, product description and qty ordered for each product.

Q9.- Display the order number and day on which clients placed their order.

Q10.- Display the month and Date when the order must be delivered.

OUTPUT
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment NO.8

Theory & Concept

Objective:- To implement the concept of Sub Queries.

Sub Queries:- A Sub Queries is a form of an SQL statement that appears inside another SQL statement.
It also termed as nested Questionry. The statement containing a Sub Queries called a parent statement. The
rows returned bu the Sub Queries are use by the following statement.
It can be used by the following commands:
1. To insert records in the target table.
2. To create tables and insert records in this table.
3. To update records in the target table.
4. To create view.
5. To provide values for the condition in the WHERE , HAVING IN , SELECT,UPDATE, and
DELETE statements.

Example: Creating client master table from oldclient_master, table Create

table client_master AS SELECT * FROM oldclient_master;

Using the Union, Intersect and Minus Clause: Union

Clause:

The user can put together multiple Queries and combine their output using the union clause . The union
clause merges the output of two or more Queries into a single set of rows and column. The final output of
union clause will be

Output: = Records only in Questionry one + records only in Questionry two + A single set of records with is
common in the both Queries.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Syntax: SELECT columnname, columname FROM tablename 1
UNION
SELECT columnname, columnname From tablename2;

Intersect Clause: The use can put together multiple Queries and their output using the interest clause. The
final output of the interest clause will be :
Output =A single set of records which are common in both Queries

Syntax: SELECT columnname, columnname

FROM tablename 1
INTERSECT
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename 2;

MINUS CLAUSE:- The user can put together multiple Queries and combine their output = records only in
Questionry one
Syntax: SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename MINUS
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename ;

Objective: Answer the following Queries:

QUERIES:

1. Find the product_no and description of non- moving products.

2. Find the customer name, address, city and pincode for the client who has placed order no
“019001”
3. Find the client names who have placed order before the month of may 96.
4. Find out if product “1.44 Drive” is ordered by only client and print the client_no name to whom
it was sold.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

5. find the names of client who have placed orders worth Rs.10000 or more.
6. Select the orders placed by ‘Rahul Desai”
7. Select the names of persons who are in Mr. Pradeep’s department and who have also worked on
an inventory control system.
8. Select all the clients and the salesman in the city of Bombay.
9. Select salesman name in “Bombay” who has atleast one client located at “Bombay”
10. Select the product_no, description, qty_on-hand,cost_price of non_moving items in the
product_master table

OUTPUT
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Theory and Concept

Objective:- To implement the concept of Indexes and views.

Indexes- An index is an ordered list of content of a column or group of columns in a table. An index
created on the single column of the table is called simple index. When multiple table columns are
included in the index it is called composite index.

CreatinganIndexforatable:-

Syntax(Simple)
CREATEINDEXindex_name
ON tablename(column name);

CompositeIndex:-

CREATEINDEXindex_name
ONtablename(columnname,columnname);

Creating an UniQuestion Index:-

CREATEUNIQUESTIONINDEXindexfilename
ON tablename(columnname);

DroppingIndexes:-AnindexcanbedroppedbyusingDROP INDEX

SYNTAX:-
DROP INDEX index filename;

Views:-

Logical data is how we want to see the current data in our database. Physical data is how this
data is actually placed in our database.

Viewsaremasksplacedupontables.Thisallowstheprogrammertodevelopamethodvia which we
can display predetermined data to users according to our desire.

Viewsmaybecreatedforethefollowingreasons:

1. TheDBAstorestheviewsasadefinitiononly.Hencethereisnoduplicationofdata.
2. SimplifiesQueries.
3. CanbeQuestionried asabasetableitself.
4. Providesdata security.
5. Avoidsdata redundancy.
DBMSLab(KCS-551)Manual(CSE,VSEM) Page1
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Creation of Views:-Syntax:-

CREATE VIEW viewname AS

SELECTcolumnname,columnname
FROM tablename
WHEREcolumnname=expression_list;

Renaming the columns of a view:-Syntax:-

CREATEVIEWviewnameAS
SELECT newcolumnname….
FROM tablename
WHEREcolumnname=expression_list;

Selecting a data set from a view-Syntax:-

SELECTcolumnname,columnname
FROM viewname
WHEREsearchcondition;

Destroying a view-

Syntax:-
DROP VIEWviewname;

DBMSLab(KCS-551)Manual(CSE,VSEM) Page2
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment 9

Objective: Answer the following Questions

Q1.Create an index on the table client_master, fieldclient_no.

Q2.Create an index on the sales_order, field s_order_no.

Q3.Create an composite index on the sales_order_details table for the columns

s_order_no and product_no.

Q4.Create an composite index ch_index on challan_header table for the

columns challan no and s_order_no.

Q5.CreateanuniQuestionindexonthetablesalesman_master,fieldsalesman_no.

Q6.Drop index ch_index on table challan_header.

  RajKumarGoelInstituteofTechnology,Ghaziabad
Department ofComputerScience&Engineering

Q7.Create view on sales man_master whose sal_amtis less than3500.

Q8.Createa viewclient_view on client_master and rename the columns as name,

add1, add2, city, pcode, state respectively.

Q9. Select the client names from client_view who lives in city ‘Bombay’.

Q10. Drop the view client_view.

 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Theory and Concept

Objective:- To implement the basics of PL/SQL.

Introduction – PL/SQL bridges the gap between database technology and procedural programming
languages. It can be thought of as a development tool that extends the facilities of Oracles SQL
database language. Via PL/SQL you can insert, delete, update and retrieve table data as well as use
procedural techniQuestions such as writing loops or branching to another block of code.

PL/SQL Block structure-

DECLARE
Declarations of memory variables used later
BEGIN
SQL executable statements for manipulating table data. EXCEPTIONS
SQL and/or PL.SQL code to handle errors. END;

Displaying user Messages on the screen – Any programming tool requires a method through which
messages can be displayed to the user.

dbms_output is a package that includes a number of procedure and functions that accumulate information in
a buffer so that it can be retrieved later. These functions can also be used to display message to the user.

put_line: put a piece of information in the buffer followed by a end of line marker. It can also be used to
display message to the user.
Setting the server output on:

SET SERVER OUTPUT ON:

Example: Write the following code in the PL/SQL block to display message to user
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(‘Display user message’);

Conditional control in PL/SQL-

Syntax:
IF <condition> THEN
<Action>
ELSEIF<condition>
<Action>
ELSE
<Action>
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

ENDIF;

The WHILE LOOP:

Syntax:
WHILE <condition>
LOOP
<Action>
END LOOP;

The FOR LOOP statement:

Syntax:
FOR variable IN [REVERSE] start—end
LOOP
<Action>
END LOOP;

The GOTO statement: The goto statement allows you to change the flow of control within a
PL/SQL Block.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Experiment No.10

Q1. WAP in PL/SQL for addition of two numbers.

Q2. WAP in PL/SQL for addition of 1 to 100 numbers.

Q3. WAP in PL/SQL to check the given number is even or odd.

Q4. WAP in PL/SQL to inverse a number, eg. Number 5639 when inverted must be display output 9365.

Q5. WAP in PL/SQL for changing the price of product ‘P00001’ to 4000 if the price is less than 4000 in
product_master table. The change is recorded in the old_price_table along with product_no and the
date on which the price was changed last.

OUTPUT:

1.

2.
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

3.

4.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Theory and Concept :

Objective:- To implement the concept of Cursor and Trigger.

Cursor–

We have seen how oracle executes an SQL statement. Oracle DBA uses a work area for its internal
processing. This work area is private to SQL’s operation and is called a cursor.
The data that is stored in the cursor is called the Active Data set. The size of the cursor in memory is the
size required to hold the number of rows in the Active Data Set.

Explicit Cursor-

You can explicitly declare a cursor to process the rows individually. A cursor declared by the user is
called Explicit Cursor. For Queries that return more than one row, You must declare a cursor
explicitly. The data that is stored in the cursor is called the Active Data set. The size of the cursor in
memory is the size required to hold the number of rows in the Active

Why use an Explicit Cursor- Cursor can be used when the user wants to process data one row at a
time.

Explicit Cursor Management-

The steps involved in declaring a cursor and manipulating data in the active data set are:-
◻ Declare a cursor that specifies the SQL select statement that you want to process.
• Open the Cursor.
• Fetch the data from the cursor one row at a time.
• Close the cursor.

Explicit Cursor Attributes-

Oracle provides certain attributes/ cursor variables to control the execution of the cursor.
Whenever any cursor(explicit or implicit) is opened and used Oracle creates a set of four system
variables via which Oracle keeps track of the ‘Current’ status of the cursor.

• Declare a cursor that specifies the SQL select statement that you want to process.
• Open the Cursor.
• Fetch the data from the cursor one row at a time.
• Close the cursor.

How to Declare the Cursor:-

The General Syntex to create any perticular cursor is as follows:- Cursor
<Cursorname> is Sql Statement;
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

How to Open the Cursor:-

The General Syntex to Open any perticular cursor is as follows:- Open

Cursorname;

Fetching a record From the Cursor:-

The fetch statement retrieves the rows from the active set to the variables one at a time. Each time a
fetch is executed. The focus of the DBA cursor advances to the next row in the Active set. One can
make use of any loop structute(Loop-End Loop along with While,For) to fetch the records from the
cursor into variable one row at a time.

The General Syntex to Fetch the records from the cursor is as follows:- Fetch
cursorname into variable1,variable2,

Closing a Cursor:-
The General Syntex to Close the cursor is as follows:- Close
<cursorname>;

Database Triggers:-

Database triggers are procedures that are stored in the database and are implicitly executed(fired) when the
contents of a table are changed.

Use of Database Triggers:-

Database triggers support Oracle to provide a highly customized database management system. Some of the
uses to which the database triggers can be put to customize management information in Oracle are as
follows:-
• A Trigger can permit DML statements against a table anly if they are issued, during regular
bussiness hours or on predetermined weekdays.
• A trigger can also be used to keep an audit trail of a table along with the operation performed and
the time on which the operation was performed.
• It can be used to prevent invalid transactions. ◻ Enforce complex security authorizations.

How to apply DataBase Triggers:-

A trigger has three basic parts:- 1. A

triggering event or ststement. 2. A
triger restriction
3. A trigger action.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Types of Triggers:-
Using the various options , four types of triggers can be created:-

1. Before Statement Trigger:- Before executing the triggering statement, the trigger action is
executed.

2. Before Row Trigger:- Before modifying the each row affected by the triggering statement and
before appropriate integrity constraints, the trigger is executed if the trigger restriction either
evaluated to TRUE or was not included.’

3. After Ststement Trigger:- After executing the triggering statement and applying any deferred
integrity canstraints, the trigger action is executed.

4. After row Trigger:- After modifying each row affected by the triggering statement and
possibly applying appropriate integrity constraints, the trigger action is executed for the
current row if the trigger restriction either evaluates to TRUE or was not included.

Syntex For Creating Trigger:-

The syntex for Creating the Trigger is as follows:-

Create or replace Trigger<Triggername> {Before,After} {Delete, Insert, Update } On <Tablename> For

Each row when Condition
Declare
<Variable declarations>;
<Constant Declarations>; Begin
<PL/SQL> Subprogram Body;
Exception
Exception Pl/SQL block;
End;

How to Delete a Trigger:-

The syntex for Deleting the Trigger is as follows:- Drop
Trigger <Triggername>;
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Table Name:0- Employee

Column Name Data Type Size Attributes

Emp_Code Varchar2 10 Primary Key
Ename Varchar2 20 The name of the Candidate
Deptno Number 5 The Department No
Job Vrachar2 20 The Employee Job Detail
Salary Number 8,2 The Current salary of Em
Table name:- Emp_raise

Column Name Data Type Size Attributes

Emp_Code Varchar2 10 Primary Key
Raise_Date date The Date On which the raise was given
Raise_Amt Number 8,2 The raise given to the employee
The HRD manager has decided to raise the salary for all the employees in the
Dept No 20 by 5%. Whenever any such raise is given to the employees, a record for
the same is maintained in the emp_raise table. It includes the EmpNo, the date when
the raise was given and the actual raise. Write a PL/SQL block to update the salary
of each employee and insert a record in the emp_raise table.

Q2:- Two Tables are there Table

Name:- Client_Master

Column Name Data Type Size Attributes

Client_No Varchar2 6 Primary Key/First letter must start with ‘C’
Name Varchar2 20 Not Null
City Varchar2 10
State Vrachar2 10
Bal_Due Number 10,2

Table name:- auditclient

Column Name Data Type Size Attributes

Client_No Varchar2 10 Primary Key
Name Varchar2 20
Bal_Due Number 10,2
Operation Varchar2 8
Create a transparent audit system for a table Client_master. The system must keep track
of the records that are being deleted or modified and when they have been deleted or
modified.
 Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Sol 1:

Sol 2: