1.

Gibb’s Phenomenon

2. The ripple near discontinuities in the partial sum Fourier

series approximations is called as the Gibbs phenomenon.
3.
4. Physicist J. Willard Gibbs explained this phenomenon.
5. With increase in the value of J, the ripple in the partial sum
approximations increases and concentrated near the
discontinuities.
6. Therefore, for any value of J, the accuracy of the partial sum
approximation becomes better as we move away from the
instant of discontinuities.

2.Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

The cumulative distribution function (CDF) of a random variable is
defined as the probability that the random variable X will have
values less than or equal to x i.e. CDF Fx (x) = P (X≤x)
Here x is a dummy variable and the CDF is denoted by Fx (x).
We can define CDF for continuous as well as the discrete random
variables. The CDF is sometimes called as simply the distribution
function.

Important Properties of CDF

Property 1:
The CDF always has its value between 0 and 1
i.e 0 <= Fx(X) <= 1
As per the definition of CDF, it is a probability function P (X <= x)
and any probability must have a value between 0 and 1
Therefore CDF will always has its value between 0 and 1
Property 2:
This property states that Fx(∞) = 1
Proof:
Here Fx(X) = P(X <= ♾️) This includes the probability of all the
possible outcomes or events.
The random variable X <= ∞ thus becomes a certain event” and
therefore has a 100% probability
Property 3:
This property states that, Fx(- ∞) = 0
Proof:
Here, Fx(- ∞) = P(X <= - ♾️) The random variable X cannot have
any value which is less than or equal to - ♾️
Thus X <= - ∞ is a null event and therefore has a 0% probability.
Therefore its probability is equal to zero
Property 4:
This property states that Fx(X) is a monotone non- decreasing
function
Fx(X1) <= Fx(X2) for X1< X2
Proof:
To prove this property, refer to Fig 7.5.1.
3. Probability Density Function (PDF)
Relationship between CDF and PDF:
The cumulative distribution function CDF can give useful
information about discrete as well as continuous random
variables.
However, the probability density function (PDF) is a more
convenient way of describing a continuous random variable.
The probability density function fx (x) is defined as the derivative
of the cumulative distribution function. Thus,
PDF: fx (x) = d/dx Fx (X)

Properties of PDF:
Property 1:
The CDF can be derived from PDF by integrating it.
i.e.

4. Explain Magnitude and Phase Response

Magnitude and Phase Response are key characteristics of a
system or a filter in signal processing.
1. Magnitude Response
Definition: The magnitude response shows how the amplitude of
the output signal varies with frequency.
Purpose: It determines how much of each frequency component in
the input signal is amplified or attenuated.
Graph: Typically plotted as amplitude (or gain) vs. frequency. For
example:
A low-pass filter allows low frequencies to pass with higher
amplitude while attenuating high frequencies.
A high-pass filter allows high frequencies to pass while
attenuating low frequencies.
2. Phase Response
Definition: The phase response shows how the phase of the
output signal changes relative to the input signal across different
frequencies.
Purpose: It determines the time shifts or delays introduced to the
frequency components of the signals.
Graph: Typically plotted as phase (in degrees or radians) vs.
frequency.
A linear phase response means all frequency components are
delayed by the same amount, preserving the signal's waveform.
A nonlinear phase response distorts the waveform by introducing
different delays for different frequencies-
Importance of Magnitude and Phase Response
1. Signal Shaping: Determines how a system affects different
frequency components.
2. System Design: Used to design filters, equalizers, and control
systems.
3. Preservation of Signal Integrity:
A proper magnitude response ensures the desired frequency
components are retained.
A linear phase response avoids signal distortion.
5. State Dirichet Conditions for the existence
of Fourier Series
The Fourier series stated in the Equations (4.2.1) and (4.2.5) will
exist if and only if the periodic signal x(t) satisfies the following
conditions.
These are known as the “Dirichlet” conditions.
They are as follows:
The periodic signal x(t) and its integrals are finite and single
valued in the interval (t to t + To), i.e. over a period of one cycle
To
X (t) must have only finite number of discontinuities in the given
interval of time.
3. x (t) should have only finite number of maxima and minima in
the given interval of time.
4. The function x (t) is absolutely integrable, that is
To/2 ∫ x(t)|dt < ∞ -To/2

6.Application of Fourier Series

Some of the important applications of Fourier series are as follow:
We can approximate almost any kind of wave using the Fourier
series
It can be used in the compression technique such as MP3
It is used in signal processing.
It is used in the approximation theory.
In the control theory.
 In partial differential equation.
For comparative analysis of DNA sequences
In the communication system.
In order to decompose any periodic waveform into weighted
sum of simple sine waves.
Musical synthesizers.

7.Define ROC. List the properties of ROC

Define: The Laplace transform exists only if X(s) is finite.In
other words the Laplace transform exists only if X(s) converges in
6.2.5

There will be values of s for which X(s) is finite and there will be
values of s for which X(s) is infinite. The values of ‘s’ for which the
Laplace transform converges(is finite) is called the Region Of
Convergence. (ROC)
The following are the list of properties of the ROC:
ROC of X(s) consists of strips which are parallel to the jo axis.
The ROC does not contain any poles
If x(t) is finite, the ROC is the entire s-plane
If x(t) is right handed then the ROC is R e (s)> alpha max ,
where alpha max is the maximum real part of the poles X(s) In
other words for a causal signal, the ROC is to the right of the
largest pole.
If x(t) is left handed then the ROC is R e (s)< alpha min where
alpha min is the minimum real part of the poles X(s) In other
 words, for an anti-causal signal, the ROC is to the left of the
smallest pole.
If x(t) is double sided then the ROC is alpha_{1} < R_{e}(s) <
alpha_{2}

8.State limitations of Fourier transform and

need of Laplace transform compare both.
The Fourier transform is only specified for functions that are
defined for all real numbers, but the Laplace transform does
not require that the function be defined for a set of negative
real numbers. A specific case of the Laplace transform is the
Fourier transform.

Laplace Fourier
Transform Transform
The Laplace transform The Fourier transform
of a function x(t) can of a function x(t) can
be represented as a be represented by a
continuous sum of continuous sum of
complex exponential exponential functions
damped waves of the of the form of ejωt
form est.
The Laplace transform The Fourier transform
is applied for solving is also applied for
the differential solving the differential
equations that relate equations that relate
the input and output ofthe input and output of
a system. a system.
The Laplace transform Fourier transform
can be used to analyze cannot be used to
unstable systems analyze unstable
systems.
Laplace Transform does Fourier Transform is
not require that the only defined for
function is defined for functions that are
a set of negative real defined for all real
numbers. numbers.
Laplace transform exists for On the other hand, it is
every function with a Fourier not always true that
Transform
every function with a
Laplace Transform has
a Fourier Transformer.
The Laplace transform The Fourier transform
is widely used for is rarely used for
solving differential solving the differential
equations since the equations since the
Laplace transform Fourier transform does
exists even for the not exists for many
signals for which the signals. For example |
Fourier transform does x(t)| as it is not
not exist. absolutely integrable.
The Laplace transform The Fourier transform does
has a convergence not have any convergence
factor.
factor and hence it is
more general.
The Laplace transform The Fourier transform is
of a signal x(t) is equivalent to the Laplace
transform evaluated along
equivalent to the the imaginary axis of the s-
Fourier transform of plane.
the signal x(t)e-σt

9.Properties of Fourier Series

1. Time Scaling
Statement:
X(t) is the original signal having a time period of T_{0} and a
fundamental frequency of omega_{0} = 2pi / T_{0}
Then x(alpha*t) represents its time scaled version, a is a
positive real number.
The time scaled signal x(alpha*t) is periodic with a time
period T_{0} / alpha and with fundamental frequency of
alpha*omega_{0}
Then the Fourier series of x (a t) is given by, x(a t)= sum n=-
infty ^ infty a n e^ | 2pi*nat / T 0

2.Time Differentiation
Some processing techniques involve differentiation and
integration of the signal x(t).
This property is applicable if and only if the derivative of x (t)
is Fourier transformable
Let x (t) F X (f) and let the derivative of x(t) be Fourier
transformable. Then, dt F x(t) j2nf X(f)

3.Time Reversal
Statement:
 This property states that if

 X(t) leftarrow FS a n
 Then the time reversed version of x(t) i.e. x(- t) forms a
Fourier series pair with a – n
 X (- t) leftrightarrow a -n
Meaning:
 The meaning of time reversal is that, the time reversal
applied to C.T. signal results in the time reversal of the
corresponding sequence of Fourier series coefficients.
  If x(t) is even, then the Fourier series coefficients will
also be even.
 That means, if x(t) = x(- t) then a n =a – n .

4. Linearity
 If x₁(t) X₁(f) and x2 (t) F.T. → X₂ (f) represent the Fourier
transform pairs and if a_{1} and a_{2} are constants then
we can write,
 [a_{1}*x_{1}(t) + a_{2}*x_{2}(t)] leftrightarrow F.T. [a 1 X 1
(f)+a 2 X 2 (f)] (5.2.1)

 That means the linear combination of inputs gets

transformed into linear combination of their Fourier
Transforms.
 Meaning
 This property can be used to obtain the Fourier transform of
a complicated function say x(t) by decomposing it in the
form of sum of simpler functions, say x1 (t) and x2 (t).

5. Time Integration

Statement:
Integration in time domain is equivalent to dividing the Fourier
transform by (j2rf).

i.e. if x(t) ^ (- F) * x(t) and provided that x(0) = 0 then, int – infty
^ t x( lambda)d lambda longrightarrow 1/(j * 2pi*f) * (t)

Write equation here…….

7. Convolution
Statement:
This property states that the convolution of signals in the
time domain will be transformed into the multiplication of
their Fourier transforms in the frequency domain.

F i.e. [x₁ (t) * x2 (t)] X₁ (f) X2 (f)

Write equation here……

8. Duality or Symmetry
Statement:
F This property states that,

if x(t)→X (-f) F Then, X (t) →x(-f) ………equation

 i.e. t and f can be interchanged.f

10 Define the Following

 Probability

 Conditional probability
If the probability of event B depends on whether event A has
occurred or not ,then we define the conditional probability.
 Bayes Theorem
  CDF
The cumulative distribution function (CDF) of a random variable is
defined as the probability that the random variable X will have
values less than or equal to x i.e. CDF Fx (x) = P (X≤x)

 PDF

 Mean

 Mean square Value

 Variance

 Standard Deviation