Digital

Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Chapter 2 Digital Image fundamentals

2.1 Elements of visual perception

2.2 Light and the electromagnetic spectrum
2.3 Image sensing and acquisition
2.4 Image sampling and quantization
2.5 Some basic relationships between pixels
2.6 Linear and Nonlinear Operations

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

2.1.1 Structure of the Human Eye
Conjunctiva
Pupil
,

≈20mm

( )

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

1
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

2.1.1 Structure of the Human Eye

„ Light Reception
ƒ Cones
ƒ 6-7millions
ƒ sensitive to Color
ƒ Photopic or Bright-light vision
ƒ Rods
ƒ 75-150millions
ƒ Scotopic or Dim-light vision

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

2.1.1 Structure of the Human Eye

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

2
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

2.1.1 Structure of the Human Eye

≈1.5 mm
≈337000 cones
© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

2.1.1 Structure of the Human Eye

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

3
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

„ 2.1.2 Image formation in the Eye

– Len
– Fovea
–
–

2.55mm

14mm ~ 17mm

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

„ 2.1.3 Brightness adaptation and discrimination

– Subjective Brightness is a logarithm function
• on the order of 1010
– The total range of distinct intensity levels it can
discriminate simultaneously is rather small

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods milliLambert:

4
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

„ A classic experiment for brightness discrimination

– Weber Ratio : ∆Ic / I
• a small value means Good brightness discrimination
• a large value means Poor brightness discrimination
– the typical observer can discern 1~2 dozen different
intensity changes
Scotopic

Photopic

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

„ Two examples
ƒ to demonstrate the perceived brightness is not a simple
function of intensity
ƒ Mach Bands - 1865, Ernst Mach

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

5
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

ƒ Simultaneous contrast

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

„ Optical Illusion( )
ƒ is not fully understood

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

6
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

7
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

8
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

9
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.1 Elements of visual perception

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.2 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

„ Electromagnetic Spectrum( )

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

10
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.2 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

„ Wavelength λ

„
− (2.2-1)

„
− (2.2-2)
h = 6.626068 ×10 −34 Js 1 eV = 1.6 × 10 −19 J
© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.2 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

„ Visible Band
„430um~790nm
„Illuminant ( )
„reflected light from objects ( )
„Achromatic or Monochromatic (Gray Level)
„Chromatic - Color
„Light Source
„ Radiance ( ) - measured in Watts
„ Luminance ( ) - measured in lumens
„ Brightness ( ) - subjective descriptor

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

11
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

„ Image Sensing
ƒ Scene ( )
ƒ Molecules
ƒ Human Brain
ƒ ...
ƒ Illumination( )
ƒ Radar
ƒ Infrared
ƒ X-ray
ƒ Sun
ƒ ...
ƒ Reflection( )
© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

12
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

„ 2.3.1 Image acquisition using a single sensor

ƒ Photodiode( )

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

„ 2.3.2 Image acquisition using sensor strips

Scanning Direction

Flatbed Scanner
CAT
MRI
PET

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

13
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

„ 2.3.3 Image acquisition using sensor arrays

ƒ Charged Couple Diode (CCD)

Sun
Lamp
Flash

Iris
Lens Digital Camera
CCD
CMOS

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

14
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

Color Filter Array (CFA)

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

„ 2.3.4 A simple image formation model

„ Image
− 2D Intensity function

(2.3-1)

(2.3-2)

− Illumination
(2.3-3)

− Reflectance

(2.3-4)

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

15
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

„ Typical values of i(x,y)

„ i = 90000 lm/m2
„ i = 10000 lm/m2
„ i = 0.1 lm/m2
„ i = 1000 lm/m2
„ Typical values of r(x,y)
„ r = 0.01
„ r = 0.65
„ r = 0.8
„ r = 0.9
„ r = 0.93

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.3 Image Sensing and Acquisition

„ Intensity at (x0, y0)

l = f ( x0 , y0 ) (2.3 - 5)

Lmin ≤ l ≤ Lmax (2.3 - 6)

Lmin = imin rmin
Lmax = imax rmax

„ [Lmin, Lmax] is called gray scale

„ Shift this interval to [0, L - 1]
„ l = 0 is black
„ l = L - 1 is white
„All intermediate values are shades of gray

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

16
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

„ 2.4.1 Basic concepts in sampling and quantization

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

Sampling ( ) Quantization ( )

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

17
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

„ 2.4.2 Representing digital images

Compact Matrix Form(2.4-1)

Traditional Matrix Form(2.4-2)

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

„ Storage space for digital images

„For Gray-Level L=2k, k bits required for a pixel
„For an M × N image, b= M × N × k bits required for an image
„For an N × N image, b= N2 k bits required for an image

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

18
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

„ 2.4.3 Spatial and Gray-Level Resolution

„ Spatial Resolution

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

19
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

Gray-Level Resolution

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

Gray-Level Resolution

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

20
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

Spatial and Gray-Level Resolution

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

Spatial and Gray-Level Resolution

similar quality

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

21
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

„ 2.4.4 Aliasing and Moire Pattern

„ Band-Limited functions
„The highest frequency of a function is finite and the
function is of unlimited duration
„ Shannon sampling theorem
„If a band-limited function is sampled at a rate equal
to or greater than twice its highest frequency, it is
possible to recover completely the original function
from its samples

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

22
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

„ An example

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.4 Image sampling and quantization

„ 2.4.5 Zooming and shrinking digital images

Nearest Neighbor Interpolation

Bilinear Interpolation

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

23
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ 2.5.1 Neighbors of a pixel

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ 2.5.2 Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and Boundries

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

24
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

8-Path
„ Path
− 4-Path 8-Path m-Path
− 8-Path
− m-Path

„ Length
(x0, y0), (x1, y1), ... , (xn, yn)
− Length=n,
− if (1≤ i ≤ n) and pixels (xi-1, yi-1) and (xi, yi) are adjacent
− if (x0, y0)= (xn, yn), the path is a closed path

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ Connected
− Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image
− Pixels p and q in S
− If there exists a path between two pixels p and q
„ Connected components
− For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to p in S is
called a connected component
„ connected sets
− If there is only one connected component in S, S is called a
connected set

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

25
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ Regions
– Let R be a subset of pixels in an image.We call R a region of the
image if R is a connected set.
„ Boundaries
– The boundary (also called border or contour) of a region R is the
set of pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors that are
not in R.

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ 2.5.3 Distance Measures

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

26
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ D4 distance

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ D8 distance

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

27
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ Dm distance
„ is defined as the shortest m-path between the points
„depends on the values of pixels
p3 p4
p1 p2
p

0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
m-distance=2 m-distance=3 m-distance=3 m-distance=4

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.5 Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels

„ 2.5.4 Image operations on a pixel basis

„ Arithmatic
„ +, -, *, /
„ Logic operation
„ not, and, or, xor
„ Operation is carried out between corresponding pixels in
the two images

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

28
 Digital
Digital Image
Image Processing,
Processing, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

2.6 Linear and non-linear operations

„ Let H be an operator whose input and output are

images. H is said to be a linear operator if, for any
two images f and g and any two scalars a and b.

H (af + bg ) = aH ( f ) + bH (g ) (2.6 - 1)

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

29