Module 1

Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

COMPUTER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
COMPUTER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Memory
Stores instructions and data

Input/Output
 Called peripherals
 Used to input and output instructions and data

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

 – Performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction)
 – Performs logical operations (AND, OR, XOR, SHIFT, ROTATE)
 COMPUTER SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
Control Unit
 – Coordinates the operation of the computer
System Interconnection and Interaction
 Bus—A group of lines used to transfer bits between the
microprocessor and other components of the computer system. Bus is
used to communicate between parts of the computer. There is only
one transmitter at a time and only the addressed device can respond.
 Types
 » Address
 » Data
 » Control signals
CPU COMPONENTS
Registers
 Hold data, instructions, or other items.
 Various sizes.
 Program counter and memory address registers must be of
same size/width as address bus.
 Registers which hold data must be of same size/width
as memory words.
CPU COMPONENTS
Control Unit
 Generates control signals which are
necessary for execution of an instruction.
 Connect registers to the bus.
 Controls the data flow between CPU
and peripherals (including memory).
 Provides status, control & timing signals
required for the operation of memory and
I/O devices to the system.
 Acts as a brain of computer system
All actions of the control unit are
associated with the decoding and
executions of instructions (fetch and
CPU COMPONENTS
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Executes arithmetic and logical operations.
 Accumulator is a special 8-bit register
associated with ALU.Register ‘A’ in 8085 is an
accumulator.
 Source of one of the operands of an arithmetic
or logical operation.
 serves as one input to ALU.
 Final result of an arithmetic or logical
operation is placed in accumulator.
ARITHMETIC AND
LOGIC UNIT
ALU performs the following arithmetic & logical
operations:
 Addition
 Subtraction
 Logical AND
 Logical OR
 Logical EXCLUSIVE OR
 Complement(logical NOT)
 Increment (add 1)
 Decrement (subtract 1)
 Left shift, Rotate Left, Rotate right
 Clear etc.
Performance metrics of CPU:

Short response time for a given piece of work

High throughput (rate of processing work)
Low utilization of computing resource(s)
High availability of the computing system or application
Fast (or highly compact) data compression and decompression
High bandwidth
Short data transmission time.
Microprocessor and microcontrollers:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Cdf68NMTZ0.
 Microprocessor
The microprocessor is a type of computer processor in which both the data processing
logic and control are included on a single integrated circuit or small numbers of
integrated circuits.
These processors consist of logic, control, and arithmetic circuits.
Its integrated circuit is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions.
These are multiple-purpose, clock-driven, and register-based digital integrated circuits
that accept input in binary data and process it as per the instruction stored in its memory
A microprocessor has the following components
1.I/O Units
2.Control units
3.Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
4.Cache
5.Registers
Eg: 8085, 8086 Microprocessor
Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a small, low-cost microcomputer on a single VLSI
integrated circuit (IC) chip.
It controls portions of an electronic system through a microprocessor unit
(MOU) and some peripherals.
Microcontroller contains processor cores with additional peripherals such
as serial interface, time, programmable I/O, and memory on the same
chip.
It interacts with other components due to its functionality resulting from
combining digital memory and a digital processor with additional
hardware.
A microcontroller is also an Embedded controller, a single-chip-computer,
or a computer on a chip.
Eg: Arduino, Raspberry Pi, ARM etc
INTRODUCTION

Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the

first IC in 1959.
In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew
Grove resigned from Fairchild Semiconductors.

They founded their own company Intel (Integrated

Electronics).

Intel grown from 3 man start-up in 1968 to industrial giant

by 1981.
3
It had 20,000 employees and $188 million revenue
 INTEL 4004
Introduced in 1971 and noted as
1Generation µP.

It was the first microprocessor by

Intel.

It was a 4-bit µP.

Its clock speed was 740KHz.

It had 2,300 transistors.

 4 KB main memory It could execute around 60,000
 45 instructions instructions per second.
 PMOS technology 5
 It was first programmable device which was used in calculators
INTEL 8008
Introduced in 1972.
It was first 8-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 500 KHz.
Could execute 50,000 instructions
per second.

 8-bit version of 4004

 16 KB main memory
 48 instructions
 PMOS technology 8

 Slow
 INTEL 8080 Introduced in 1974.
It was also 8-bit µP.
Its clock speed was
2 MHz.
It had 6,000 transistors.
Was 10 times faster
than 8008.
Could execute
 64 KB main memory 5,00,000 instructions
 10X faster than 8008 per second.
 NMOS technology
 Drawback was that it needed three power supplies. 9
 Small computers (Microcomputers) were designed in mid 1970’s
using 8080 as CPU.
 Introduced in 1976.
INTEL 8085
It was also 8-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 3 MHz.

Its data bus is 8-bit and address

bus is 16-bit.
It had 6,500 transistors.

Could execute 7,69,230 instructions

per second.
It could access 64 KB of
memory.

 64 KB main memory It had 246 instructions.

Over 100 million copies were 10
 NMOS technology sold.
 Uses only one +5v power supply.
 Introduced in 1978.

It was first 16-bit µP and noted as 3G.

INTEL 8086
Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and
10 MHz, depending on the version.

Its data bus is 16-bit and

address bus is 20-bit.

It had 29,000 transistors and HMOS

technology.

Could execute 2.5 million

instructions per second.

It could access 1 MB of memory.

It had 22,000 instructions.

It had Multiply and Divide
12
instructions.
 Introduced in 1979.
INTEL 8088 It was also 16-bit µP.

It was created as a cheaper

version of Intel’s 8086.

It was a 16-bit processor with an

8-bit external bus.

Could execute 2.5 million

instructions per second.

This chip became the most popular in

the computer industry when IBM used
it for its first PC

13
.
INTEL 80186 & 80188
Introduced in 1982.
They were 16-bit µPs.
Clock speed was 6 MHz.
80188 was a cheaper version of
80186 with an 8- bit external
data bus.
They had additional components
like:
Interrupt Controller
Clock Generator
Local Bus Controller
14
Counters
INTEL 80286 Introduced in 1982.

It was 16-bit µP.

Its clock speed was 8

MHz.

Its data bus is 16-bit

and address bus is
24-bit.

It could address 16 MB of
memory.

It had 1,34,000 transistors.

It could execute 4 million 15

instructions per second.
 Introduced in 1986.
It was first 32-bit µP.

INTEL 80386 Its data bus is 32-bit and

address bus is 32-bit.
It could address 4 GB of
memory.
It had 2,75,000 transistors.
Its clock speed varied from 16
MHz to 33 MHz depending upon
the various versions.
Different versions:
80386 DX
80386 SX
80386 SL

Intel 80386 became the best 17

selling microprocessor in
history.
 Introduced in 1989.

INTEL 80486 It was also 32-bit µP.

It had 1.2 million transistors.
Its clock speed varied from 16
MHz to 100 MHz depending
upon the various versions.
It had five different versions:

80486 DX
80486 SX
80486 DX2
80486 SL
80486 DX4
8 KB of cache memory was
18
introduced.
 Introduced in 1993.
INTEL PENTIUM It was also 32-bit
µP.
It was originally named 80586.

Its clock speed was 66 MHz.

Its data bus is 32-bit and

address bus is 32-bit.

It could address 4 GB of
memory.

Could execute 110 million

instructions per second.

Cache memory:
8 KB for instructions.
19
8 KB for data.
INTEL PENTIUM PRO
Introduced in 1995.
It was also 32-bit µP.
It had L2 cache of 256 KB.
It had 21 million transistors.

It was primarily used in

server systems.
Cache memory:
8 KB for instructions.

8 KB for data.
20

It had L2 cache of 256 KB.

INTEL PENTIUM II
Introduced in 1997.
It was also 32-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 233 MHz
to 500 MHz.

Could execute 333 million

instructions per second.

MMX technology was

supported.

L2 cache & processor were 21

on one circuit.
INTEL PENTIUM II XEON
Introduced in 1998.

It was also 32-bit µP.

It was designed for servers.

Its clock speed was 400 MHz

to 450 MHz.

L1 cache of 32 KB & L2 cache

of 512 KB, 1MB or 2 MB.

It could work with 4 Xeons in

same system.
22
INTEL PENTIUM III
Introduced in 1999.
It was also 32-bit µP.
Its clock speed varied from 500
MHz to 1.4 GHz.
It had 9.5 million
transistors.

23
INTEL PENTIUM IV
Introduced in 2000.

It was also 32-bit µP.

Its clock speed was from

1.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz.

L1 cache was of 32 KB & L2 cache

of 256 KB.

It had 42 million transistors.

All internal connections were made

from aluminium to copper.

24
INTEL DUAL CORE Introduced in 2006.
It is 32-bit or 64-bit µP.
It has two cores.
Both the cores have there own
internal bus and L1 cache, but
share the external bus and L2
cache.
It supported SMT
technology.

SMT: Simultaneously Multi-

Threading
E.g.: Adobe Photoshop supported
25
SMT.
33
INTEL CORE 2 Introduced in 2006.
It is a 64-bit µP.

Its clock speed is from 1.2 GHz to 3

GHz.
It has 291 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core and 4
MB of L2 cache.
It is launched in three different versions:
Intel Core 2 Duo
Intel Core 2 Quad
Intel Core 2 Extreme
28
INTEL CORE I3
Introduced in 2010.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 2 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.93
GHz to 3.33 GHz.
It has 781 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 512 KB of L2 cache and
4 MB of L3 cache.
31
INTEL CORE I5
Introduced in 2009.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 4 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.40
GHz to 3.60 GHz.
It has 781 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 256 KB of L2 cache
and 8 MB of L3 cache.
30
INTEL CORE I7
Introduced in 2008.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 4 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.66
GHz to 3.33 GHz.
It has 230 billion transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 256 KB of L2 cache
and 8 MB of L3 cache.
29
INTEL CORE I9
Introduced in 2017.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 10 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from
3.33 GHz to 5.2 GHz.
It has 430 billion
transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1
cache per core, 1 MB
of L2 cache per core
and 13.75 MB of L3
cache.
Assembly language, high level language, low level language,
machine language:
http://www.itrelease.com/2018/07/difference-between-assembly-language-and-high
-level-language/.
MOV A, M : Assembly language
7E (0111 1110): Machine language

▪ Assembly language and machine language are treated as low level languages.

▪ Assembly language vs high-level language:

▪ In assembly language, programs written for one processor will not run on another type of
processor. In high-level language programs run independently of processor type.
▪ Performance and accuracy of assembly language code are better than a high-level.
▪ High-level languages have to give extra instructions to run code on the computer.
▪ Code of assembly language is difficult to understand and debug than a high-level.
▪ One or two statements of high-level language expand into many assembly language
codes.
▪ Assembly language can communicate better than a high-level. Some type
of hardware actions can only be performed by assembly language.
▪ In assembly language, we can directly read pointers at a physical address which is not
possible in high-level
▪ Working with bits is easier in assembly language.
▪ Assembler is used to translate code in assembly language while the compiler is used to
compile code in the high-level.
▪ The executable code of high-level language is larger than assembly language code so it
takes a longer time to execute.
▪ Due to long executable code, high-level programs are less efficient than assembly
language programs.
▪ High-level language programmer does not need to know details about hardware
like registers in the processor as compared to assembly programmers.
▪ The most high-level language code is first automatically converted into assembly code.
 Assembly Programming
• Machine Language
• binary
• hexadecimal
• machine code or object code

• Assembly Language
• mnemonics
• assembler

• High-Level Language
• Pascal, Basic, C
• compiler
Microprocessor development tools:
https://csenotesforyou.blogspot.com/2016/12/assembly-language-program-develo
pment.html.
Hardware Tools :
Software Tools !
In Circuit Emulator (ICE)
Assembler !
Logic Analyzer
Linker !
Emulator
Loader !
Compiler ! ▪ A debugger is a computer program used by programmers to test
Libraries ! and debug a target program. Debuggers may use instruction-set
Simulator ! simulators, rather than running a program directly on the
Debugger ! processor to achieve a higher level of control over its execution.
Locator ! This allows debuggers to stop or halt the program according to
specific conditions. However, use of simulators decreases
execution speed. When a program crashes, debuggers show the
position of the error in the target program. Most debuggers also
are capable of running programs in a step-by-step mode, besides
stopping on specific points. They also can often modify the state
of programs while they are running.
Editor
- An editor is a program that allows to create a file containing the assembly language
statements for your program.
Example: PC-Write, Wordstar.
- As you type in your program, the editor stores the ASCII codes for the letters and numbers in
successive RAM locations.
- When you have typed in all your programs, you then save the file on the hard disk. This file is
called source file and the extension is .asm.

Assembler
- An assembler program translates the assembly language mnemonics for instructions to
corresponding binary codes. When you run the assembler, it reads your program's source file
from the disk where you saved it after editing.
- On the first pass through the source program, the assembler determines the displacement of
named data items, the offset of labels, etc., and puts this information in a symbol table.
- On the second pass through the source program, the assembler produces the binary code for
each instruction and inserts the offsets, etc. that are calculated during the first pass.
- The assembler generates 2 files on the floppy disk or hard disk. The first file is called an
object file (.obj).
- The second file the assembler generates is called the assembler list file and is given extension
(.lst).
Linker

- A linker is a program used to join several object files into one large
object file.

- The linker produces a link file which contains the binary codes for all
the combined modules. The linker also produces a link map file which
contains the address information about the linked files (.exe).

4. Locator

- A locator is a program used to assign the specific address of where the

segments of object code are to be loaded into memory.

- A locator program called EXE2BIN comes with the IBM PC Disk

Operating System (DOS). EXE2BIN converts a .exe file to a .bin file
which has physical addresses.
Debugger

- A debugger is a program that allows you to load your object code program into system
memory, execute the program, and troubleshoot or debug it.

- The debugger allows you to look at the contents of registers and memory locations
after your program runs.

- It allows you to change the contents of registers and memory locations and re-run the
program.

- Some debuggers allow you to stop execution after each instruction so that you can
check or alter after each register contents.

- A debugger also allows you to set a breakpoint at any point in your program. If you
insert a breakpoint at any point in your program, the debugger will run the program up
to the instruction where you put the breakpoint and then stop the execution.

Emulator

- An emulator is a mixture of hardware and software.

- It is used to test and debug the hardware and software of an external system, such as
the prototype of a microprocessor-based instrument. Part of the hardware of an
emulator is a multiwire cable that connects the host system to the system being
developed.
Linker : A linker is special program that combines the object files, generated by
compiler/assembler, and other pieces of codes to originate an executable file have. exe
extension. In the object file, linker searches and append all libraries needed for
execution of file. It regulates the memory space that will hold the code from each
module. It also merges two or more separate object programs and establishes link
among them.

Loader : The loader is special program that takes input of object code from linker,
loads it to main memory, and prepares this code for execution by computer. Loader
allocates memory space to program. Even it settles down symbolic reference between
objects. It is in charge of loading programs and libraries in operating system.

Locator - A locator is a program used to assign the specific addresses of where the
segments of object code are to be loaded into memory.
Linking and relocation:
In computing, a linker or link editor is a computer utility program that takes one or
more object files generated by a compiler and combines them into a
single executable file, library file, or another 'object' file.

Computer programs typically are composed of several parts or modules; these

parts/modules need not all be contained within a single object file, and in such cases
refer to each other by means of symbols as addresses into other modules, which are
mapped into memory addresses when linked for execution. For most compilers, each
object file is the result of compiling one input source code file.
When a program comprises multiple object files, the linker combines
these files into a unified executable program, resolving the symbols as
it goes along. Linkers can take objects from a collection called
a library or runtime library. Most linkers do not include the whole
library in the output; they include only the files that are referenced by
other object files or libraries. Library linking may thus be an iterative
process, with some modules included requiring additional modules to
be linked, and so on.

Relocation is the process of assigning load addresses for

position-dependent code and data of a program and adjusting the code
and data to reflect the assigned addresses. Prior to the advent of multi
process systems, and still in many embedded systems the addresses for
objects were absolute starting at a known location, often zero. Since
multiprocessing systems dynamically link and switch between
programs it became necessary to be able to relocate objects
using position-independent code.
A linker usually performs relocation in conjunction with symbol
resolution, the process of searching files and libraries to replace
symbolic references or names of libraries with actual usable
addresses in memory before running a program. Relocation is
typically done by the linker at link time, but it can also be done
at load time by a relocating loader, or at run time by the running
program itself. Some architectures avoid relocation entirely by
deferring address assignment to run time; this is known as zero
address arithmetic.

After linking, there has to be re-allocation of the sequences of placing the

codes before actually placement of the codes in the memory. The loader
program performs the task of reallocating the codes after finding the physical
RAM addresses available at a given instant.
Debugger: - A debugger is a program which allows you to load your object code
program into system memory, execute the program and troubleshoot or debug it.

The debugger allows you to look at the contents of registers and memory locations
after your program runs.

- It allows you to change the contents of registers and memory locations and re-run
the program.

- Some debuggers allow you to stop execution after each instruction so that you can
check or alter after each register contents.

- A debugger also allows you to set a breakpoint at any point in your program. If you
insert a breakpoint at any point in your program, the debugger will run the program
up to the instruction where you put the breakpoint and then stop the execution.

Emulator: - An emulator is a mixture of hardware and software.

- It is used to test and debug the hardware and software of an external system, such as
the prototype of a microprocessor based instrument. Part of the hardware of an
emulator is a multi wire cable which connects the host system to the system being
developed. Ex: FPGAs, USRPs.
Debugging, Simulator, Emulator, In-circuit emulator:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wmDsd53ibE.

ICE:
https://www.scribd.com/document/251155947/IN-CIRCUIT-EMUL
ATOR
Embedded systems pose unique debugging challenges. With neither terminal nor
display (in most cases), there's no natural way to probe these devices, to extract the
behavioural information needed to find what's wrong. They let us connect an external
computer to the system being debugged to enable single stepping, breakpoints, and all
of the debug resources enjoyed by programmers of desktop computers.

In-circuit emulation (ICE) is the use of a hardware device or in-circuit emulator used
to debug the software of an embedded system. It operates by using a processor with the
additional ability to support debugging operations, as well as to carry out the main function of
the system. Particularly for older systems, with limited processors, this usually involved
replacing the processor temporarily with a hardware emulator: a more powerful although more
expensive version. It was historically in the form of bond-out processor which has many
internal signals brought out for the purpose of debugging. These signals provide information
about the state of the processor.
Logic analysers:
https://www.radio-electronics.com/info/t_and_m/logic_analyzer/logic_analyzer.php.
An in-circuit emulator (ICE) provides a window into the embedded system. The
programmer uses the emulator to load programs into the embedded system, run
them, step through them slowly, and view and change data used by the system's
software.
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO
DISASSEMBLE CODE?
Preprocessing
& Compiling
Source Code Assembly Code

Assembly

Executable Code Object Code

Linking

DLLs
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO
DISASSEMBLE CODE?
Preprocessing
& Compiling
Source Code Assembly Code

LY
MB
S E
A S Assembly
S
DI

Executable Code Object Code

Linking

DLLs
Modular programming:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_programming.
Modular programming is a software design technique that emphasizes separating the
functionality of a program into independent, interchangeable modules, such that each
contains everything necessary to execute only one aspect of the desired functionality.

A module interface expresses the elements that are provided and required by the module.
The elements defined in the interface are detectable by other modules.
The implementation contains the working code that corresponds to the elements declared in
the interface. Modular programming is closely related to structured
programming and object-oriented programming, all having the same goal of facilitating
construction of large software programs and systems by decomposition into smaller pieces,
and all originating around the 1960s. While the historical usage of these terms has been
inconsistent, "modular programming" now refers to high-level decomposition of the code of
an entire program into pieces: structured programming to the low-level code use of
structured control flow, and object-oriented programming to the data use of objects, a kind
of data structure.

67
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