Geography IGCSE – Edexcel

Topic 2 – Question 2 on paper 1

Coastal Environments
Highlighted key words are from the specification and will come up in exam questions. You need
to understand the meaning of these words.

Specification Page
Section 1 – Physical processes make coastal landforms 3

a) Physical processes
Marine processes
1. Wave action
• destructive waves
• constructive waves
2. Erosion – 4 types 4
3. Transportation
• 4 types
• longshore drift 5
4. Deposition
Weathering 6
1. Mechanical
2. Chemical
3. Biological
Mass movement 7
1. Sliding
2. Slumping

b) Coastal Landforms 8
Landforms made by erosion
1. Headlands and bays
2. Cliffs
3. Wave-cut platforms 9
4. Caves, arches, stacks and stumps
Landforms made by deposition 10
1. Beaches
2. Spits
3. Bars

c) Influence of geology and sea-level changes on coastal environments 11

Geology
Sea level change
1. Sea level rise
2. Sea level fall 12
Section 2 – Ecosystems develop along different coasts 13

a) Distribution and features of the world’s coastal ecosystems

• coral reefs
• mangroves
• sand dunes 14
• salt marshes

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b) Characteristics of one coastal ecosystem – mangroves 15
• abiotic characteristics
• biotic characteristics
c) How small-scale and large-scale coastal ecosystems are threatened 17
by people and their activities
• industrialisation
• agricultural practices
• tourism
• deforestation
Section 3 – Coasts need to be managed sustainably. 20

a) Conflicts between different users of the coast

• conservation
• development
b) Coastal flooding 21
Causes of coastal flooding
• storm surges
• tsunamis
• climate change
Prediction and prevention of coastal flooding 22
• forecasting
• building design 23
• planning 24
• education 25
c) Coastal management strategies 27
Hard engineering
• sea walls
• revetments
• riprap
• gabions
• groynes
Soft engineering 28
• beach replenishment
• cliff regrading
• ecosystem rehabilitation and revegetation
• managed retreat
Shoreline management plans 30

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Section 1 - Physical processes make coastal landforms

Key Terms Definition

Physical natural – to do with the earth (not humans)
Processes how things change over time
Physical processes natural changes over time – for example erosion by waves.

a) Physical processes
Marine processes:

Key Terms Definition

Marine the sea or ocean
Marine processes changes made by oceans, e.g. wave action, erosion, transport or deposition

1. Wave action:
• waves come in up the beach – swash
• waves go back down the beach – backwash
• there are two types of waves:

Destructive waves

Destructive waves:
• high energy
• remove sand
• erode the
beach

Constructive waves

Constructive waves:
• low energy
• deposit sand
• build up the
beach

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2. Erosion = wearing away the land and picking up the load. There are 4 different types:

Hydraulic This is the pressure of the water being thrown against the cliffs by the
Action waves. Water and air are forced into small cracks in the cliff and
break pieces off.

Abrasion Material (sand and pebbles) carried by waves are thrown against
the cliff face with great force, wearing away the land.

Corrosion The sea is slightly acidic and dissolves some rocks like limestone and
chalk by a chemical reaction.

Attrition This is the wearing away of the rocks which are in the sea (the load).
As the rocks in the sea move around, they become smoother and
smaller forming pebbles then sand

Watch this video to help your understanding of the 4 types of erosion above:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYQ--nTcNU8

3. Transportation = moving the load (sand and pebbles)

a. there are 4 ways material is transported:

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 b. Longshore drift - Watch this video and use it to annotate the diagram on the next
page showing how longshore drift moves sand along the coast.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RbtDgJ2Mf2A

4.

2.
3.

1.

Annotations to add:

1. Waves come in the direction of the wind, at an angle

2. Swash pushes sand diagonally up the beach

3. Sand falls back straight down the beach by gravity (backwash)

4. Longshore drift moves sand along the coast

4. Deposition = dropping the load

The process associated with constructive waves:

• Waves lose energy, e.g. by slowing

down when rolling up a beach.

• Without energy, waves can’t carry

material (pebbles or sand) anymore.

• Material is dropped.

• Over time it builds up.

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Weathering:
Weathering is another physical process happening at the coast. It is linked to the weather
– heat, cold and rain - but is also linked to chemicals, plants and animals too.

Key term Definition

Weathering the land is broken up where it is (in situ) and left there

1. Mechanical weathering:
This is also called physical weathering. Changes in the weather break up the land – e.g.
freezing and melting of rainwater in the soil and rocks. An example of mechanical
weathering is freeze-thaw. See diagram below:

Weathered rocks

2. Chemical weathering:
Natural acids in
rainwater dissolve
some chemicals in
rocks like limestone
and make holes.

3. Biological weathering:

1. A seed falls into

a crack.
2. Rain causes
the seed to grow.

3. Roots force
their way into
more cracks and
as they grow, they break up the rock.

4. Burrowing animals also break up rocks under the soil.

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Mass movement:
Mass movement is another physical process at the coast. It is the movement of land due
to gravity through sliding and slumping.

Key term Definition

Mass movement earth moves downhill due to gravity. This happens at the coast when
cliffs fall

1. Sliding:

2. Slumping:

Slumping is a large piece of land moving down a slope.

Question: Outline the process of slumping

(3 marks):
• Common on clay cliffs
• Clay cracks in dry weather
• When it rains, water gets into cracks
• The soil becomes saturated (full of water)
• A large piece of rock is pulled down the cliff

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b) Landforms
The physical processes above shape the land and make landforms which are easy to
spot if you go to the coast.

Key term Definition

Landforms or processes like erosion and deposition change the shape of the land – the
features shapes are called landforms or they may be called features

Landforms made by erosion:

1. Headlands and bays happen where different types of rock are eroded differently:

These land forms are affected by geology – the

type of
rock

2. Cliffs are formed by a combination of wave erosion, weathering and mass movement.
Gradually the cliffs recede and land is lost.
Weathering loosens rock at
the top of the cliff face

Wave action erodes the

bottom of the cliff

Mass movement causes the cliff to collapse. The

waves then carry away the rocks that have fallen.

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3. Wave-cut platform - This is a rocky slope down to the sea at the bottom of the cliff. It
forms when a hard rock cliff has receded (collapsed and gone back) several times over
the years:
Weathering weakens
the top of the cliff.

The sea erodes the

base of the cliff, making
a wave-cut notch.

The notch gets bigger,

causing the cliff to
collapse.

The backwash removes

High tide level fallen rocks, forming the
wave-cut platform.

The process continues

and the cliff retreats.
Low tide level
Wave cut platform The wave-cut
platform can only
be seen at low tide

Watch this video for a

clear explanation of
wave-cut platforms:

tps://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=TGxsC7
4H2Jw

4. Caves, arches, stacks and stumps are formed on a headland of hard rock. This erosion
happens very slowly over time.

Video showing landforms caused by

erosion (first 2 minutes only):
https://www.bbc.com/education/cli
ps/zfxg9j6

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Landforms made by deposition:

1. Beaches
• Constructive waves (page 2) have a strong swash which carries sand and pebbles
onto the shore.
• The waves then lose their energy quickly as their
backwash is weak.
• Without energy, waves can’t carry material
(pebbles or sand) back out to sea.
• Material is dropped.
• Over time it the sand builds up and forms a
beach.

2. Spits
Spits are beaches that are attached to the coast at one end, with the other end sticking
out into the sea.
1. Longshore drift
moves sand along
the coast.
2. If the coastline
changes direction,
the waves lose
energy and
deposit sand.
3. This forms a spit
which grows over
time.
4. The still water
behind the spit
may become a
salt marsh.

Pagham Spit, West Sussex

3. Bars
Bars are beaches that form across a bay. They are formed when a spit grows across a bay
and joins to the next headland, cutting off the bay and forming a lagoon.

Slapton
Ley in
Devon

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c) Influences of geology and sea level changes on coastal environments.
Geology – the type of rock
This map of the Dorset coast shows how geology affects the shape of the coast.

1. The limestone and chalk are

hard rocks and erode slowly.
2. These have become
headlands and there are
caves, arches, stacks and
stumps in these areas, e.g. old
Harry rocks.
3. The sand and clay are softer
and erode more quickly so this
is where the bays are.

Sea Level Changes

1. Sea-level rise – due to ice caps melting and more water in the sea. This causes:
a. Coastal landforms such as rias and fjords (flooded river mouths):

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b. A risk of flooding to low-lying coasts – see the maps below.

2. Sea-level fall – due to land lifting up when the ice on the land melts and weight is
reduced. This causes landforms such as raised beaches and relict cliffs:

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Section 2 – Ecosystems develop along different coasts

a) Distribution of the world’s coastal ecosystems.

Coral reefs
Coral reefs are found in tropical seas – see map. They need:
• Temperature – warm seas –
above 20 degrees Celsius.
• Light – lots of sunlight so only
grow in clear water.
• Water depth – shallow seas, less
than 25metres deep because
of the need for light.
• Salinity – salt water.
• Wave action – strong wave
action provides oxygen in the
water.

• They are called the “rainforests of the sea” because they

have a huge variety of plants and animals.
• They are sensitive to climate change and pollution and can
die off rapidly.

Mangroves
• Mangroves are mostly located in the tropics, like coral reefs – see map.
• They are salt water forests which have one “foot” on land and the other in the sea.
• They can cope with rapidly
changing conditions:
o Regular flooding by
the sea and
sometimes by
freshwater.
o Great heat.
o Lots of sediment.

• Like coral reefs, mangroves are very biodiverse – with

lots of diifferent species of plants and amimals.
• They can trap mud and sand, and eventually build up
new land.

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 Salt marshes
• Salt marshes are located in the intertidal zone (between high and low tide), like
mangroves, so the species are adapted to salty water and regular flooding.
• They can develop anywhere in the
world where there is shelter from the
open sea eg:
o behind a spit
o in bays
o in the estuaries (mouths) of rivers

Sand dunes
• Sand dunes are a landform made by a combination of:
o deposition by the sea
o wind blowing the sand inland
• They can form anywhere in the world where:
o There is a wide beach and large quantities
of sand are deposited by the sea
(constructive waves)
o The prevailing (most common) wind is
onshore (from sea to land)
• Over time, the wind blows the sand up into
ridges parallel to the coastline
• Gradually plants grow on the sand dunes and
stabilise them (the roots hold the sand in place)
• The types of plants change as you go from the sea inland because the exposure to salt
and wind changes, and different species need different conditions.

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b) Characteristics of one coastal ecosystem – Mangroves

• abiotic (non-living) characteristics –

o climate – sunlight, temperature, rain
o soil – this is the sediment (mud and sand) that the mangrove roots grow in
o sea water
o nutrients – necessary for life. These move through the ecosystem as a cycle –
see diagram below:

Litter is dead leaves,

plants and animals.

Litter is decomposed
- broken down - and
recycled.

• biotic (living) characteristics –

This is the plants and animals that live in the ecosystem:

o The different plants and animals link together and rely on each other for food.
o The ecosystem is in balance.
o Any change in the number of one species will affect the other species and
the whole ecosystem
o The living part of the ecosystem relies on the non-living part and can’t survive
without it – e.g.:
§ the mangroves get nutrients from the sediment (mud and sand) that
they grow in.
§ The sunlight enables plants to grow.
o The food web below shows some of the species in a mangrove ecosystem.

This video clip shows you what mangroves look like and some of the species:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00dhmtd
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c) How small- scale and large-scale coastal ecosystems are threatened by
people and their activities

Key Terms Definition

small-scale coastal on a local scale – e.g. Keyhaven salt marsh, near Southampton – see link:
ecosystems http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/AQA/Coastal%20Zone/Habitats/Co
astal%20Habitats.htm
large-scale coastal on a regional or global scale – e.g. coral reefs around the world are dying
ecosystems because of climate change
threatened at risk of damage or death.
activities of people fishing, building houses, tourism – eg hotels and boats, farming, pollution from
industry
biodiversity variety of species of plants and animals – the Great Barrier Reef in Australia
has 1,500 different species of fish and 700 species of coral

• Coastal ecosystems are valuable to humans – they provide both goods (products) and
services (help) to people. The table below gives some examples:

Ecosystem Goods Services

Coral reefs • fish • tourism
• shellfish • protection from storms
• fishmeal and animal feed • wildlife habitat
• seaweed for food and industry • biodiversity
• building materials - coral

Mangroves • fish • wildlife habitat

• shellfish • act as a nursery for young fish and shellfish
• fishmeal and animal feed • biodiversity
• timber for building materials and • protection from storms, tsunamis and rising
fuel sea levels
• land for building and farming • natural treatment of wastes
• create new land

Salt • salt • wildlife habitat

marshes • land for building and farming • act as a nursery for young fish and shellfish
• protection from flooding and sea level rise
• recreation - nature reserves/ bird
watching

Sand dunes • building materials – sand • places for recreation – walks, picnics
• land for building • protection from flooding and sea level rise

The use of coastal ecosystems by humans can damage or destroy the ecosystem. Most
of them are fragile and sensitive to changes made by humans.

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Some of the threats are shown below:

Ecosystem Threats Explanation

Coral reefs • Tourism: swimming, • coral is very sensitive to touch by humans – this kills
snorkelling, scuba the coral
diving
• pollution • fuel from boats and even oils from sun cream in the
water can kill coral
• over-fishing • this damages the ecosystem by changing the
balance of species

Mangroves • Deforestation due to • trees are cut down and the mangrove forests are
population growth: destroyed because populations are growing in Asia
• Growth of urban so:
areas o more land is needed for building homes
• Agriculture o more land is needed to grow crops and raise
• Fishing industry animals to feed the people
• over-fishing damages ecosystems

Salt • Draining of marsh • Marshes are drained (dried out) and used for building
marshes land ports and industry
• Pollution from: • Land and water is polluted by:
o Industry o Power stations and oil refineries
o Agriculture o Too much fertiliser damages the ecosystem
• Tourism/recreation • Building marinas or hotels damages the ecosystem

Sand • Tourism/recretion • Too many people walking in the dunes damages the
dunes vegetation and the wind blows the sand away.

Case study – Mangroves. The diagram below shows the many threats to mangrove
ecosystems by humans.

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Case study – Mangroves in Bangladesh – the Sundarbans

• Bangladesh is a low-lying country with a

high population.
• 25 million people live less than 1 metre
above sea level.
• The Sundarbans mangrove forest provides
protection against flooding from cyclones
and sea level rise due to climate change.
• It is being damaged by deforestation, over-fishing and shrimp farming.
• It is being managed by the Bangladesh Government who have:
o planted mangrove seedlings to encourage more forest to grow.
o protected the National Park area from development.

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Section 3 – Coasts need to be sustainably managed

a) Conflicts between different users of the coast.

Key term Definition

Conflict A disagreement or fight. Different groups of people have different views
on how the coast should be managed.
Stakeholders Groups of people who use the coast (they have an interest in the area).

The two main views on how the coast should be managed are conservation and
development:

Conservation
Conservation is protecting the coast, particularly ecosystems, and keeping it as it is.

Groups of people (stakeholders) who Their opinions on how the coast should be
are interested in conservation include: managed:

Environmental groups and scientists want to protect the coastal ecosystems,

particularly rare or endangered species
Bird watchers want to protect the wildlife so they can watch it

Wildlife lovers want to protect the area so wildlife can breed

Some tourists they might want the area to remain quiet so that
they can enjoy its beauty
Some local residents they might want the area to remain quiet and
not want any more houses or hotels built

Development
Development is usually building on or making changes to the coast.

Groups of people (stakeholders) who Their opinions on how the coast should be
are interested in development include: managed:

Business owners shop owners need more customers for bigger

profits so they want more houses and hotels built
Industry linked to ports more development means industries have the
facilities they need to grow their business
Workers in the fishing/shellfish industries more development means more jobs

Farmers farmers need land for growing crops and

feeding livestock
Some tourists some tourists might want more hotels/holiday
homes and facilities like shops and restaurants
Some local residents some people want more housing built,
particularly affordable homes
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b) Coastal flooding
Coastal flooding happens when dry land at the coast is flooded by sea water.

Causes of coastal flooding

1. Storm surges

Severe weather can cause flooding when 3 things combine:

a. high tides
b. high winds
c. storm surge (lifting of the sea due to low pressure weather - storms)

Storm surges are caused by high winds pushing on the ocean’s surface. The wind causes
the water to pile up higher than the ordinary sea level.

This can happen during a bad storm in the UK – see this explanation:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-25229885/what-creates-a-storm-surge

Worse effects happen where the storm is more severe - in tropical storms, hurricanes and
cyclones:

2. Tsunamis

• Tsunamis are usually caused by an earthquake under the sea floor.

• The earthquake moves the rock under the sea (the sea bed) along a fault line
• This pushes up the water above into huge waves
• When the waves reach the shallow water at the coast they get higher and higher
• The waves have enormous power and floods move quickly inland.
Flooding at
the coast

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Epicentre of earthquake
under the sea bed
3. Climate change

The sea level is rising due to global warming:

• The rise in temperature is melting the polar ice caps.
• As glaciers melt, more water flows into the sea.
• More water in the sea increases the height of the sea relative to the land.
• Coasts will flood, particularly where land is low and flat e.g. Bangladesh.
• Billions of people live close to the coast around the world.
• Many of the world’s cities are on the coast.
• Sea level rise will become a significant issue into the next 100 years.

Prediction and prevention of coastal flooding

Key term Definition

Prediction • Identifying high-risk areas: Looking back at historic records and
identifying areas that have been flooded most often and most
seriously.
• Forecasting approaching storms and storm surges
• Forecasting tsunamis
Prevention • Actions that reduce the risk of flooding
• Actions that reduce the risk of death and injury when flooding occurs.

1. Forecasting

a. Forecasting storms and storm surges

In the UK:
• The Met Office predicts (forecasts) the likelihood of a flood.
• The information gets to residents through weather forecasts and news broadcasts on
the TV and radio, their website and social media.
• The Environment Agency monitors sea conditions 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
• The Storm Tide Forecasting Service provides the Environment Agency with forecasts of
where coastal flooding is expected.
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• The Environment Agency provides this information to the public via their website, social
media and by phone on a 24-hour Flood hotline.

In Bangladesh:
• The Meteorological Department has three radar stations that transmit weather
updates.
• The Bangladesh Disaster Bureau also issues cyclone alerts through the national media
as soon as a cyclone is detected by satellites

b. Forecasting tsunamis
Tsunami warning systems in the pacific and Indian Oceans:

Example exam question: Coastal flooding can be predicted. Justify this statement. (3 marks)
Example answer: “In the UK, The Met Office monitors the weather and The Environment Agency
monitors sea conditions 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. (1 mark for detailed case study) They
provide forecasts of coastal flooding to the public via TV weather reports, social media and a
hotline. (1 mark for development of point) Tsunami early warning systems in the Pacific Ocean use
technical equipment to predict tsunamis and warn people (1 mark for second example).”

2. Building design

In Bangladesh (LIC):
• Many houses in flood zones are built on stilts.
• All one-storey or two-storey buildings must have an
external staircase to the roof.

In Malibu (California, USA - HIC):

• Houses are built on stilts to protect them from storm
tides.
• Houses should minimise penetration from wind, rain
and storms.
Houses built on stilts, Malibu, California

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 Raised building design

Waterproofing, flood-proof
door barriers and raised
windows.

Example exam question: Describe how building design can reduce the effects of coastal flooding.
Use examples in your answer. (4 marks)
Example answer: “In many LICs prone to flooding, e.g. Bangladesh, homes are built on stilts. (1
mark for this description) Therefore, when flooding occurs possessions are not destroyed as
the water is able to pass below the home. (1 mark for this explanation of “how”) More
expensive designs include using waterproofing and flood-proof door barriers. (1 mark for
this description). These are used in Malibu, California. (1 mark for use of appropriate examples
– knowing which examples are LIC and which HIC)

3. Planning
In the UK (HIC):
• The Government has identified coastal areas at risk of
flooding and put building restrictions in those places.
• Before building takes place, a full check must be made
to ensure that the area is not prone to flooding.
• Planning permission will not be granted if the area is
prone to flooding.
• The Thames Flood Barrier was completed in 1982. Thames flood barrier, London
• New flood walls along the River Thames and many other
flood defence techniques will be installed to protect London against flooding.
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In Bangladesh (LIC):
The Coastal Embankment project includes:
• 12 sea-facing flood walls
• 500 flood shelters
• flood warning systems
• requirement for all 1 and 2 storey buildings have to have external stairway

Bangladesh flood shelter

Example exam question: Explain how coastal flooding can be reduced through planning (4
marks)
Example answer: Not allowing homes to be built in potential flood-risk zones. (1 mark for basic
point) In the UK, the Government has identified at risk areas (1 mark for correct use of case study)
and restricts planning permission in those areas, so homes are not allowed to be built (1 mark for
explanation of point). This reduces the risk to life and damage to property. (1 mark for explaining
how this reduces flooding)

4. Education

In the UK (HIC):
• The government gives advice to the public via the Environment Agency website.
• There is general advice on how to protect their homes from flooding and what to do if
a flood occurs.
• Environmental Agency page: Prepare your property for flooding.

In Bangladesh (HIC):
• Information is provided to residents on how to
prepare for cyclones and flooding:
• Disaster preparedness is being taught as a subject
in school for grades 3-10.
• Schools practice safety programs and drills
nationwide in March and October.
• The country has had an effective warning system for
more than four decades.
• In 2007 Cyclone Sidr struck Bangladesh and killed
about 3,500 people. It was estimated that the
cyclone warning system helped saved 100,000 lives.

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• See this website for more on the cyclone:
http://aaw15example.blogspot.com/2013/06/cyclone-sidr-gcse-case-study.html
Example exam questions: Explain how education can reduce the effects of coastal flooding. Use
examples in your answer. (4 marks)
Explain how the effects of flooding are reduced. Use examples in your answer. (6 marks)
Explain how the effects of coastal flooding can be reduced through prediction and prevention.
Use examples in your answer. (6 marks)

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c) Coastal management strategies

Hard engineering – building structures/barriers to protect against erosion or flooding.

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Soft engineering – involves working with nature.

Shoreline Management Plans

The UK manages the coastal are by dividing the coastline into manageable chunks. There
are 11 main areas and each one has an SMP – a shore line management plan. The plans
will include 1 or more of the following actions:

1. Hold the line – protect the coast from further erosion e.g. sea walls.
2. Advance the line – build up the beach or buffer zone e.g. groynes, beach
replenishment.
3. Managed retreat or realignment – allow certain areas to flood and protect the
coastline further back.
4. Do nothing – as it says! Leave the natural environment to flood or erode.

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