Chapter II

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

Lesson Outline
2.1 The Nature of Mathematics as a Language
1.1.1 Characteristics of mathematical language
2.1.2 The grammar of mathematics
2.2 Mathematical Expressions and Sentences
2.2.1 Expressions versus sentences
2.2.2 Conventions in the mathematical language
2.3 The Language of Sets
2.3.1 Set
2.3.2 Relations and operations on sets
2.3.3 The Venn diagram
2.4 The Language of Relations and Functions
2.4.1 Relations
2.4.2 Functions
2.4.3 Domain of a Function
2.5 The Language of Logic
2.5.1 Logic
2.5.2 Logical connectives
2.5.3 The truth table

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to
 Explain the nature of mathematics as a language,
 Write mathematical expressions and sentences using symbols,
 Solve practical problems involving the language of sets, relations and
functions, and logic, and
 Appreciate the usefulness of mathematical language.

Mathematics in the Modern World | 29

2.1. The Nature of Mathematics as a Language
In this lesson, you will be introduced to a mathematical way of thinking that can
serve you in a wide variety of situations. In dealing with any situation, you need to
understand and use a language to express your ideas.
2.1.1. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

People often consider mathematics a difficult subject matter because they

consider the language of mathematics foreign to them. However, like any language,
mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules to understand the expressed ideas and
to communicate ideas to others.,
Mathematics is about ideas -- relationships, quantities, processes, ways of figuring
out certain kinds of things, reasoning, and so on. It uses words. When we have ideas, we
often want to talk about them; that is when we need words. Words help us communicate.
The ideas are elsewhere.
The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that
mathematicians like to express. There are three important characteristics of the language
of mathematics. These are precision, conciseness, and powerful.

a. Precision refers to the quality, and condition of being exact and accurate.
When an idea is precise you will be able to make very fine distinctions. By being
precise when expressing ideas, you remove the probability that other people will not
understand how and which condition a situation holds true. For instance, when you state
the expression “the set of positive integers”, you are referring to a particular set of
numbers without explaining what these numbers are. This set of positive integers refers to
the numbers {1, 2, 3,…}.
b. Conciseness involves using the most appropriate and minimal number of
effective words to make one’s point understood.
In the language of mathematics, the definition of a term is concise if it is brief and
direct to the point. This means that a great deal of the definition is conveyed in just a few
words and is generally free of repetition, redundancy, and unnecessary details. To
illustrate this characteristic, let us try to define a term that possesses conciseness.
“A regular pentagon is a polygon with 5 equal sides and angles.” It is already
enough to define a regular pentagon that satisfies the two conditions (1) has 5 equal sides,
and (2) has 5 equal angles. There is no need to provide more information to say that they
have equal sides and equal angles for a pentagon to be a regular polygon.
c. Powerful. The language of mathematics is considered to be powerful when it is
able to express complex thoughts with relative ease.

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 The use of mathematics together with a written language provides powerful tools
and aids to the human mind. The use of mathematics is used in research studies and the
development of new technologies in the sciences such as in computer programming,
physics, medicine, etc.
The language of mathematics can be learned, but requires the efforts needed to learn
any foreign language. Thus, we need to get extensive practice with mathematical
language ideas, to enhance the ability to correctly read, write, speak, and understand
mathematics.
2.1.2. The Grammar of Mathematics

Mathematics has its own grammar, vocabulary, syntax, word order, synonyms and
antonyms, conventions, abbreviations, negations, and sentence and paragraph structures.
The main reason for the importance of mathematical grammar is that statements of
mathematics are supposed to be precise. Mathematical sentences become highly complex
if the parts that made them up were not clear and simple which makes them difficult to
understand.
The grammar of mathematics refers to the structural rules governing the use of
symbols representing mathematical objects.
Some difficulties in math language include the following:
 The word "is" could mean equality, inequality or membership in a set
 Different uses of a number; to express quantity (cardinal), to indicate the order
(ordinal), and as a label (nominal)
 Mathematical objects may be represented in many ways, such as sets and
functions
 The words "and' & "or" means different from its English use

Example 1. Express the following using mathematical symbols

1. 5 is the square root of 25
2. 5 is less than 10
3. 5 is a prime number

It is common in mathematics to use the equal sign “=” when using the word is.
For example, the statement “two plus three is five” can be written in the form “2 + 3 = 5”.
Let us go back to the illustrations above. We have the following translations of the
statements a, b, and c using mathematical symbols as follows:
1. 5= √ 25
2. 5 < 10
3. 5∈P

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 We can observe from the solutions that the equal sign is not necessarily used to
express the second and third statement. Instead, we use other symbols to express
correctly these two statements.

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2.2. Mathematical Expressions and Sentences
In this lesson, you will learn to translate expressions and sentences using
mathematical symbols.
2.2.1. Expressions versus Sentences
We call the mathematical analogue of noun as EXPRESSION. Thus, an
expression is a name given to a mathematical object of interest. Whereas, in English we
need to talk about people, places, and things. We know that mathematics has much
different objects of interest such as numbers, sets, matrix, ordered pair, etc.
Ideas regarding expressions
a. Expressions have different names. In mathematics, we frequently need to work with
numbers, these numbers are the most common mathematical expressions. And,
numbers have lots of different names.

Example 2. The number 5 can be written in many ways as follows:

2+3 10÷ 2 (6 - 2) + 1 1 + 1+ 1 +1+ 1

This simple idea- that numbers has lots of different names – is extremely
important in mathematics. This is the same concept as synonyms in English (words
that have the same (or nearly the same) meaning.

b. Common in solving expressions is to simplify. The most common type of problem

involving expressions is to simplify. But what does simple mean?
 Fewer symbols
 Fewer operations
 Better suited to current use
 Preferred/ style/format

Examples 3.
1. 3 + 1 + 5 and 9 are both names for the same number but 9 uses fewer symbols.
2. 3 + 3+ 3 + 3 + 3 and 5x3 are both names for the same number, but 5x3 uses fewer
operation
1
3. 1.33 and 1 have the nearly the same values, but for some learners it may be
3
1
suited to consider 1 as this is easier for them to understand its value. Besides,
3
1
1 is not exactly equal to 1.33.
3
4. We write ½ instead of 13/26. We usually write reduced form or simplest form as
fraction in simplest form is necessary.

A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct

assignment of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. Sentences are used

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to state complete thoughts. A typical English sentence has at least one noun, and at least
one verb. For example, Joseph loves Mathematics.
Truth of a Sentence
The notion of truth (the property of being true or false) is of fundamental
importance in the mathematical language.
Ideas regarding mathematical sentence
a. Mathematical Sentences have verbs and connectives. Just as English sentences have
verbs, so do mathematical sentences.
For instance, in the mathematical sentence 3 + 4 = 7. The equal sign is actually
the verb and indeed one of the most popular mathematical verbs. The symbol “+” in
3 + 4 = 7 is a connective which is used to connect objects of a given type.

b. Truth of Sentences. Sentences can be true or false. It makes sense to ask the truth of
a sentence. Ask if Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true? Is it sometimes false?

How to decide whether something is a Sentence?

 Read it aloud, and ask yourself the question: Does it state a complete thought? If
YES, then it is a sentence.
 You may also ask yourself the question: Does it make sense to ask about the truth of
it?

2.2.2. Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Mathematical conventions are particular symbols, facts, names, and notations
used by mathematicians, engineers, scientists, and other users of mathematics in their
writings, studies, and work.
Mathematical symbols and names are conventional. People abide by the
conventions to understand each other without having to constantly redefine terms. Some
of the most common mathematical conventions include the following:
1. The equal sign “=” is one of the most common mathematical symbols used to
express equality of two expressions written on both sides of the symbols. It is used to
replace the word “is” but not always depending on the meaning thought of the
statement.
2. When dealing with order of operations, it is a convention to perform the order of
operations as follows: parentheses, exponentiation, multiplication and division (from
left to right), and addition and subtraction (from left to right). We can use the
mnemonic PEMDAS to perform the order of operations.
3. Addition of numbers when done vertically is performed from right to left.
4. The arithmetic operations are implied by the following words/terms:
a. Addition “+” : plus, add, sum, total, more than, increase by,…
b. Subtraction “–”: minus, subtract, difference, less than, take away, decrease by,
deduct, …

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 c. Multiplication “x”: times, multiply, product, groups of, …
d. Division “÷ ”: divide, quotient, split, share, …
5. Multiplication may be denoted by a dot “.”, a parenthesis (), or asterisk “ ¿”. Division
may be denoted by the following forms: {a} over {b” or “a/b” such as 15 ÷ 3, can
15 15
be written as or .
3 3
6. A variable such as x is usually placed to the right of the equal sign and the
expression that defines the variable to the right of the equal sign. For example: Let x
= the set of even integers between 10 and 20.
7. A bar is placed over the digits that repeat in writing decimals such as 1. 33 for
expressing 1.33… or 4/3.
8. One dozen means 12.
9. Any number divided by zero is undefined.
10. When a number is drawn horizontally, the convention is that the positive direction is
to the right; and when the number line is drawn vertically, the positive direction is
upward.
11. A set of consecutive numbers is expressed by the first and last numbers as “the
integers from 5 to 10” would indicate that there are actually 6 integers, even without
using the word inclusive. On the other hand, the expression as “the integers between
5 and 10” indicates that there are actually four integers only which means that 5 and
10 are excluded in the set.
12. The following are standard symbols used as conventions in mathematics:

Conventions Meaning
a. x ≥y x is greater than or equal to y
b. x ≤ y x is less than or equal to y
c. x ≠ y x is not equal to y
d. |x| the absolute value of x

e. x ⊥y line x is perpendicular to line y

f. √x the square root of x

g. √3 x the cube root of x

h. x 2 the square of x

i. x ≈ y x is approximately equal to y
j. x% x percent

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2.3. The Language of Sets
It is natural for us to classify items into sets or groups and consider how those sets
overlap with each other. We can use the concepts about sets to understand relationships
between and among objects.
2.3.1. Set
Some sets occur very often in mathematics, and so we use special symbols for
them. Some such symbols follow:
N = The natural numbers or positive integers = {1, 2, 3, …}
Z = All integers, positive, negative, and zero = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
R = The real numbers.
Definition
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. A set is well-defined if an
object can be classified clearly whether or not it belongs to a set. For example, the set of
even integers less than 10 is well-defined since it is clear that the set contains particular
members of the set referring to 2, 4, 6, and 8.
We use capital letters of the English alphabet to name sets. The members of a set
are called elements. We use the symbol ∈ to denote that an element belongs to or
member of a set while ∉ if an element does not belong to a set.
For example, let V the set of the vowels in the English Alphabet. Write
symbolically to describe u and w with respect to the given set V.
u∈V → since the elements of V are a, e, i, o, and u.
w∉V → since w is not a vowel. It is actually a consonant.
The cardinality of a set A refers to the number of elements of A. It is denoted by
n(A). Given set V above, n(V) = 5.
Methods in Writing a Set
The following methods can be used to write a set:
a. Roster Method – this is done by listing the elements of the set, enclosed in curly
brackets.
Example 4.
Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b. Rule Method – this is done by describing the elements
Example 5.

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 Z = {the set of the first positive integers}
The set-builder notation in the form A = {x |x is… } read as “A is the set of all x
such that x is…} can be used to write a set by describing each element of the set.
Example 6.
Z = {x|x is one of first positive integers }
or Z = {x|x ϵ N, x ≤ 5}, (note that N is the set of natural numbers)
Try this!
Let C is the set of provinces in Region I - Philippines. Write C using roster
method and rule method, and set-builder notation.

Types of Sets
The following are common types of sets:
1. Universal set refers to all sets under investigation that are assumed to be
contained in some large fixed set, which we denote by U.

or ∅. An empty set is also called a null set.

2. Empty set is a set that contains no elements. An empty set can be name using {}

3. Finite set is a set consisting of elements in which the number of elements is

countable. Consider the sets:
A = {5, 7, 9, 11} and B = {4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128}

Obviously, A, B contain a finite number of elements, i.e., 4 elements in A and

6 in B. Thus, they are finite sets.
4. Infinite set is a set consisting of elements in which the number of elements is not
countable or indefinite Consider the sets:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
X = {x¿
In N, there are infinite numbers in the set. Note that X is also an infinite set
since the numbers between 1 and 10 have no definite number of elements. Unless
you specify that x is an integer, then it becomes a finite set.
5. A subset is a set taken from another set. Let A be a given set whose elements are

considered to be a subset of A. In symbol, we write B ⊆ A.

the integers from 1 to 10. From A, we form a set B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Hence, B is

A subset is classified into two:

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 a. Proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set – it contains
fewer elements. We use the symbol “⊂”.
b. Improper subset is a subset whose elements are identical to the original set
and the empty set.
To determine the znumber of subsets of set A, denoted by s(A), use the formula:
s(A) = 2n, where n is the number of elements of A.
Example 7. Let C = {red, blue, yellow}. List the proper and improper subsets of
C.
Note that C has n = 3 elements. Using the formula, 23=8. Hence it has 8 subsets: 6
proper subsets and 2 improper subsets.
Proper subsets:
{red}, {blue}, {yellow}, {red, blue}, {red, yellow}, {blue, yellow}
Improper subsets:
{red, blue, yellow}, { }

Try this!
Given R = {a, b, c, d}. List all the subsets of R.
_________________________________________________

2.3.2. Relations and Operations on Sets

a. Relationships between and among sets
The relationships between two or more sets can be described as follows:
1. Equal sets. Two or more sets are equal if they have the same elements.
Example 8. Let A = {a, c, t} and B = {c, a, t}
Since the A and B have exactly the same elements regardless of the order of the
elements, A and B are equal sets. We write A = B.
2. Equivalent sets. Two or more sets are equivalent if they have the same number of
elements.
Example 9. Let C = {4, 7, 10} and D = {x, y, z}
Both C and D have 3 elements, that is, n(C) = n(D) = 3. Therefore, C and D are
equivalent sets. We write C D.

Mathematics in the Modern World | 38

3. Joint sets. Two or more sets are joint sets if they have at least one common element.
Example 10. Let E = {the letters of the word “math”} and F = {the letters of
the word “music”}.
Examine the common elements found in both E and F. We see that they have a
common element, m. Therefore, E and F are joint sets.
4. Disjoint sets. Two or more sets are disjoint sets if they do not have at least one
common element.
Example 11. Let G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and H = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
Since we do not see any element common to G and H, then G and H are disjoint
sets.
b. Operations on Sets
Let us consider two sets A and B to illustrate the four operations namely: union,
intersection, difference, and complement.
1. The union of two sets denoted by A ⋃ B contains all the elements contained in either
set (or both sets). More formally, x ∊ A ⋃ B if x ∈ A or x ∈ B (or both).

2. The intersection of two sets denoted by A ⋂ B contains only the elements that are in
both sets. More formally, x ∈ A ⋂ B if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

3. The difference of two sets denoted by A – B contains the elements found in A but not

x ∈ (A – B) if x ∈ A and x ∉B. Moreover, x ∈ (B – A) if x ∈ B and x ∉A.

in B. Conversely, B – A contains the elements found in B not in A. More formally,

4. The complement of a set A contains everything that is not in the set A. The
complement is notated A’, or Ac, or sometimes ~A.

Example 12.
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}
C = {2,4,6}
Perform the following operations:
a. A ⋃ B
b. A ⋂ B
d. B – A
e. Ac
c. A – B f. Bc
g. (A U B) ∩ C h. (A ∩ B) U C
i. (Ac – Bc) U C j. (Bc - Cc) U A

Mathematics in the Modern World | 39

a. A ⋃ B
Answers:

b. A ⋂ B
= {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
= {2, 3, 7, 10}
c. A – B = {6, 8}
d. B – A = {5, 9}
e. Ac = {1, 4, 5, 9}
c
f. B = {1, 4, 6, 8}
The Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets using enclosed areas in the
plane. The universal set U is represented by the points in a rectangle, and the other sets
are represented by circles lying within the rectangle.

The following diagram illustrates the real number system using a Venn Diagram.

Fig. 31. The Real Number System

Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/AhaEpgB17iqQBtBr5

Let us present given sets using a Venn Diagram.

Example 13. Show a Venn Diagram for

U = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}, A = {1, 2, 3}, and B = {5, 7, 9}

Mathematics in the Modern World | 40

 A and B are Disjoint Sets
Example 14. Show a Venn Diagram for
U = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11}, C = {3, 5, 7}, and D = {7, 9, 11}

C and D are Joint Sets

Example 15. Show A Venn Diagram for
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, E = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, and F = {4, 5, 7}

F is a subset of E (F ⊂ E)
Example 16.
A survey asks 200 people on what beverage they drink in the morning. Suppose
30 report tea only, 80 report coffee only, 40 report both.
1. How many people drink tea in the morning?
2. How many people drink neither tea or coffee?

Mathematics in the Modern World | 41

 Solution:
This problem can be answered by creating a Venn diagram. Draw two
overlapping circles since based on the problem, there are people who drink both coffee
and tea.
1. We can find the people who drink tea by adding those who drink only tea to those who
drink both. Hence, there are 30 + 40 = 70 people.
2. Those who drink neither are those not contained in the any of the three other
groupings, so we can count those by subtracting from the cardinality of the universal
set, 200. Hence, there are 200 – 80 – 30 – 40 = 50 people who drink neither.
The Venn Diagram for the problem is illustrated below:

Mathematics in the Modern World | 42

2.4. The Language of Relations and Functions
In this lesson, you will learn the concepts of relations and functions which are
useful for solving many application problems in Mathematics.
2.4.1. Relations
Objects in mathematics may be related in various ways. A set A may be said to be
related to a set B. For example: A is a subset of B, A and B have at least one common
element, or A and B have the same elements. A number x may also be related to a
number y. For example, x < y, x is a factor of y, or x 2+ y 2=1.
A relation is a correspondence between two things or quantities. It is a set of
ordered pairs (x, y). Two important factors connected with a relation are the domain and
range. The set of all values of x is called the domain while the set of values of y is called
the range. A relation may also be expressed as a statement, arrow diagram, table,
equation, set-builder notation and graph.
For example, the relation is given by
R= {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10), …}
The given relation R can be described as follows:
a. By Statement
R is the set of ordered pairs where the second elements is twice of the first
elements.
b. By Arrow Diagram

1 2

2 4

3 6

4 8

5 10

. .

c. By Table
X 1 2 3 4 5 . . .
Y 2 4 6 8 10 . . .

Mathematics in the Modern World | 43

 d. By Set-builder Notation
R = { (x , y )| y=2 x , x ∈ N }

e. By a Graph

(5, 10)

(4, 8)

(3, 6)

(2, 4)

(1, 2)

A relation may be formed from two sets A and B. To understand this, let us
introduce the concepts of Cartesian Product.
Cartesian Product
Consider two arbitrary sets M and N. The set of all ordered pairs (m, n) where:
m ∈ M and n ∈ N is called the Cartesian Product. By notation,
M x N = {(m, n)|m ∈ M ∧n∈ N }
Example 17.
Let M = {1, 2} and N = {1, 2, 3}. Find M x N.
Solution:
M x N = {(1,1), (1,2), (1, 3), (2,1), (2, 2), (2,3)}

Example 18.
Let M = {a, b, c} and N = {1, 7}. a.) Find M x N and b.) Find N x M.

Mathematics in the Modern World | 44

 Solution:
a.) M x N = {(a, 1), (a, 7), (b, 1), (b, 7), (c, 1), (c, 7)}
b.) N x M = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (7, a), (7, b), (7, c)}

Example 19.
Let J = {0, 1, 2} and K = {1, 2, 3}. Find J x K.
Solution:
J x K = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}

Example 20.
In J x K, can you identify a relation R = { (x , y )| x< y }?
Solution:

Examine the ordered pairs in J x K where the value of the first element is less than
the second element. Hence, we have
R = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}

Now, we give a formal definition of a relation.

Definition:
Let A and B be sets. A relation from A to B is a subset of A x B. Given an
ordered pair (x, y) in A x B, x is related to y by R, if and only if (x, y) is in R.
To find a relation from A to B, follow these steps:
st
1 step: Define A x B
2nd step: Examine each ordered pair that satisfies the given relation.

Example 21.
Find a relation R such that y is twice of x if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6}.
Solution:
1st step: Define A x B.
A x B = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2,4), (2, 6), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3,6)}
2nd step: Examine each ordered pair.
R = {(1, 2), (2,4), (3,6)}

Example 22.
x− y
Find a relation R such that is an integer if A = {1, 2,} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
2
Solution:
1st step: Define A x B
A x B = {(1,1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
nd
2 step: Examine each ordered pair.
R = {(1,1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}

Mathematics in the Modern World | 45

 1−1 0
since: (1,1) → = =0 , which is an integer
2 2

1−3 −2
(1,3) → = =−1 , which is an integer
2 2

2−2 0
(2,2) → = =0 , which is an integer
2 2
All the other three ordered pairs cannot be part of the relation because the results
1−2 −1
are not integers. For example, (1, 2)→ = which is NOT an integer.
2 2

2.4.2. Functions
The concept of function provides the essential tool in applying mathematical
formulations in solving problems. For example, the distance (d) a car travels is related to
the product of its speed (s) and the time (t) of travel in the equation d = st.
Definition:
Let D and R be two sets. A function from D to R is a rule that associates or
assigns to each element in D a single element in R. We then say that a quantity y is a
function of another quantity x if a rule exists such that a unique value of y is assigned a
corresponding value of x. To denote this relationship, we use the functional notation:
y = f(x)
where f indicates that a function exists between variables x and y.
For instance, the statement “the area (A) of a circle depends on its radius (r)” can
be denoted as A= f(r), where A represents the area and r, the radius. This is read as “Area
is a function of its radius”. In fact, the area of a circle is given by the formula:
A = π r 2. Hence, a function may be considered as a formula or equation. In the
equation y = 2x – 3, every value of x gives only one value of y. Then y is a function of x.
this may be written as
f(x) = 2x – 3
The functional notation y = f(x) allows us to denote specific values of a function.
To evaluate a function is to substitute the specified values of the independent variable in
the formula and simplify.

Example 23. When f(x) = 2x – 3, find

a. f(0)

b. f(1)

Mathematics in the Modern World | 46

 c. f(-1)

d. f(5-x)

Solution:

a. f(0) = 2(0) – 3 = 0 – 3 = – 3

b. f(1) = 2(1) – 3 = 2 – 3 = – 1

c. f(-1) = 2(-1) – 3 = – 2 – 3 = – 5

d. f(5-x) = 2(5 – x) – 3 = 10 – 2x – 3 = – 2x + 7

Graph of a Function
For a given function y = f(x), we can set up ordered pairs of values (x, y) or (x,
f(x)). These ordered pair can be plotted in the xy- plane to show how the relation looks
like.
To graph a given function, follow these steps:
1. Take representative values of x in the domain of the function and solve for f(x). Then
construct a table of values for x and f(x).
2. Plot the points whose coordinates are the ordered pairs (x, f(x)) from the table of
values.
3. Join the plotted points in the plane with a straight line or smooth curve. Label the
graph.
Example 24.
Illustrate the graph of f(x) = x2 + 2x – 8
Solution:
You should be able to recognize that the given function is a quadratic function
whose graph is represented by a parabola.
Construct a table of values as follows
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
f(x) -5 -8 -9 -8 -5 0 7

Then, plot each point (x, f(x)) from the table above.

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Operations on Functions
This deals with the basic operations on functions and their effects on the domain
of functions.
The sum, difference, product and quotients of two functions are also functions.
Let f and g be two functions:
a. The sum of two functions, f + g, is the function defined by
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
b. The difference of two functions, f - g, is the function defined by
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
c. The product of two functions, f. g, is the function defined by
(f. g)(x) = f(x) . g(x)
d. The quotient of two functions, f /g, is the function defined by
(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)
The domain of the first three new functions: f + g, f – g, and f.g is defined as the
intersection of the domains of f and g. The domain of the quotient f/g excludes those
numbers that will make the denominator g(x) zero.

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 Example 25. Let f(x) = 5x – 2 and g(x) = x – 1. Find the following:
1. (f + g)(x)
2. (f - g)(x)
3. (f . g)(x)
4. (f / g)(x)
Solution:
1. (f + g)(x) = (5x – 2) + (x – 1) = 5x – 2 + x – 1 = 6x – 3
2. (f - g)(x) = (5x – 2) – (x – 1) = 5x – 2 – x + 1 = 4x – 1
3. (f . g)(x) = (5x – 2)(x – 1) = 5x2 – 5x – 2x + 2 = 5x2 – 7x + 2
4. (f / g)(x) = (5x – 2)/(x – 1)
Composition of Functions
This pertains to the combinations of two or more functions. The new function is
called a composite function.
Let two functions be f and g. The composition of f with g, denoted by f ₒ g (read
as “f circle g”), is the function defined by
(f ₒ g)(x)= f(g(x))
where the domain of f ₒ g consists of all numbers x in the domain of g for which
g(x) is in the domain of f.
Example 26. Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = 1 – x.
a. Find (f ₒ g) (x)
b. Find (g ₒ f) (x)
Solution:
a. (f ₒ g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f (1 – x)
= 3(1 – x) + 2
= 3 – 3x + 2
= 5 – 3x
b. (g ₒ f)(x) = g(f(x))
= g(3x + 2)

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 = 1 – (3x + 2)
= 1 – 3x – 2
= – 3x – 1

2.4.3. Domain of a Function

For the function y = f(x), we call the set from which we take values of the
independent variable x the Domain of the function. The set of all possible values of y as x
varies over the domain is called the Range of the function.
When we define functions, we should be aware of two restrictions.
The first restriction concerns rational expressions: we should never divide by zero.
The domain of functions involving rational expressions excludes those values of the
independent variable that will make the denominator zero.
The second restriction involves radical expressions: we never take the square root
of a negative number. Therefore, the domain of this type of function does not include
those values of the independent variable that will make the radicand negative.
Example 27. Discuss the domain of each function:
a. f(x) = 2x + 1
b. g(x) = x2
3
c. h(x) =
x+ 4
d. k(x) = √ x+ 3
Solution:
a. f(x) = 2x + 1 is a linear function. Its domain is the set of real numbers.
b. g(x) = x2 is a quadratic function. Its domain is the set of real numbers.
3
c. h(x) = is a rational function. Note that x can not assume a value of x that
x+ 4
makes the denominator equal to zero. The only exemption to the domain of the
function is x = −¿ 4 since x + 4 = −¿ 4 + 4 = 0.
d. k(x) = √ x+ 3 is a square root function. Note that x cannot assume values of x
that make the radicand less than zero. To find the domain are the values of x that
satisfy the quality x +3 ≥ 0 → x ≥−3 . Hence, the domain is the set {x ≥−3 }.

2.4. The Language of Logic

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 This lesson introduces the basic concepts of elementary logic to determine the
truth or falsity of statements.
2.4.1. Logic
Logic is the study of correct thinking and reasoning. It uses principles and
methods to distinguish valid arguments from those that are not. It is the foundation for
expressing logical methods used to prove theorems, design computer software, and to
solve mathematical problems.
Logic is a tool for working with complicated statements. It illustrates the
importance of precision and conciseness. It allows us to determine the validity of an
argument in and out of mathematics. For lawyers, they use logic to communicate more
effectively, construct arguments, analyze legal contracts, and make decisions.
In logic, assertions are made by combining words and symbols in the form of
sentences. Such assertions are called statements or propositions, which are declarative
sentences that are either true or false – but not both.
A statement or proposition may be denoted by a variable like P, Q, R,…
Example 28.
P: University of Northern Philippines is in Vigan City.
Q: Light travels faster than sound.
R: 1 + 3 = 4.
S: 7 is an even number.

Simple and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound
statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas. It is formed by connecting
simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if…then, if and only if, etc.
Example 29.
1. 20 is divisible by 4.
2. Taylor Swift is a singer and Stephen Curry is a basketball player.
3. If a polygon has three sides, then it is a triangle.
4. Mark goes to gym or stays at home every Friday.
Statement 1 is a simple statement while statements 2, 3, and 4 are examples of
compound statements.
2.4.2. Logical Connectives

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 Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if…then,
and if and only if create a compound statement. For instance, “My mother attends a
meeting or buys in a grocery store”. The word or is a connective for the two simple
statements.
Logical connective is a word or symbol that joins two sentences to produce a new
one. George Boole uses symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and
the symbols ˄, ˅, ⁓, →, ↔ to represent connectives.
Logical Connectives and Symbols
Type
Statements Connective Symbolic Form
of Statement
not p Not ⁓p negation
p and q And p˄q conjunction
p or q Or p˅q disjunction
If p, then q If…then p→q implication/conditional
p if and only if q if and only if p↔q biconditional

Example 30.
Let p: I review my lessons.
q: I play video games.
r: I go to the beach.
s: I get a reward.
The following are compound statements formed by using logical connectives.
Write the following statements:
a. q ˄ p
b. q ˅ r
c. ⁓ r
d. p → s
e. s ↔ p

Solution:

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 a. I play video games and review my lessons.
b. I play video games or go to the beach.
c. I do not go to the beach.
d. If I review my lessons, then I get a reward.
e. I get a reward if and only if I review my lessons.
Example 31. Indicate the simple statements by p and q and express the
compound statement in symbolic form of the following compound statements.
a. John can program in C++ and he can program in Java.
b. If x is an even number then it is a multiple of 2.
Solution:
a. p: John can program in C++.
q: John can program in Java.
p˄q
b. p: x is an even number.
q: x is a multiple of 2.
p→s

2.4.3. The Truth Table

The truth values of a compound statement are respectively determined by the truth
values of the original statements and the connectives used to form them. The decision of
accepting or rejecting a statement depends on the truth values of a proposition. An
acceptable statement is given a truth value “true” and unacceptable statement is given a
truth value “false”
a. Negation.
If a proposition p is true, then the proposition ⁓ p is false. However, if p is false,
then ⁓ p is true.
For example:
Let p: “I study at University of Northern Philippines.” be a true statement. Then,
⁓ p is stated as “I do not study at the University of Northern Philippines.” or “It is false
that I study at the University of Northern Philippines.” Which is a negation of the original
proposition p.

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b. Conjunction
The conjunction of two statements p and q denoted by p ⋀ q is defined by the
following truth table.
p q p⋀q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

The only condition for p ⋀ q to be a true statement is when both p and q are true.
c. Disjunction
The disjunction of two statements p and q denoted by p q is defined by the
following truth table.
p q p⋁q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

This means that the disjunction of two statements is true if and only if at least one
of the statements is true.
d. Implication or Conditional
In a conditional statement, the truth of p implies the truth of q. If p is true, then q
must be true. The only way that this can fail (or be false) is when p is true while q is
false. The truth table of p→ q is given in the following table.
p q p→ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

e. Biconditional
The biconditional statement p↔ q, is defined by the following truth table.

p q p↔ q
T T T

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 T F F
F T F
F F T

Summary of truth values of compound statements using logical connectives

p Q p⋀q p⋁q p→ q p↔ q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

Example 32. Given the truth values of the propositions A, B, C, and D. If A is

true, B is false, C is true, and D is false, give the truth value of the following:
a. [(⁓A ⋀ B) → C] ⋁ D
b. [(A → B) → ⁓ C] ↔[⁓ B → ⁓ (C ⋀ D)]
Solution:
We simply substitute the truth value of each proposition, i.e.
a. [(⁓T ⋀ F) → T] ⋁ F
[(F ⋀ F) → T] ⋁ F
(F → T) ⋁ F
T⋁F
T
b. [(A → B) → ⁓ C] ↔[⁓ B → ⁓ (C ⋀ D)]
[(T → F) → ⁓ T] ↔[⁓ F → ⁓ (T ⋀ F)]
(F → F) ↔(T → ⁓ F)
T ↔ (T → T)
T ↔T
T
Example 33. Construct a truth table for

a. [⁓ p → ( p ⋀ q)]

b. [ (p ↔q) ⋁ (p → r)] → ⁓ (q ⋀ r)

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 Solution:

a. [⁓ p → ( p ⋀ q)]

Since it involves 2 propositions, there are 4 combinations.

P Q ⁓p p⋀q [⁓ p → ( p ⋀ q)]
T T F T T
T F F F T
F T T F F
F F T F F

b. [(p ↔q) ⋁ (p → r)] → ⁓ (q ⋀ r)

Since it involves 3 propositions, there are 8 combinations.

⁓(q⋀r [(p↔q)⋁(p→r)]→⁓(q
⋀r)
p Q r (p↔q) (p→r) (p ↔q)⋁(p→r) (q⋀r)
)

T T T T T T T F F
T T F T F T F T T
T F T F T T F T T
T F F F F F F T T
F T T F T T T F F
F T F F T T F T T
F F T T T T F T T
F F F T T T F T T

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Mathematics in the Modern World | 57