Module 1

CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

[Introduction. Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids.
Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and
hormones.]

Introduction

Cell Definition

“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”

Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can
replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.

A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure
to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first
Biologist who discovered cells.

All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or
many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building
blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken
from the food into energy.

Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are
of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up
of cells of different shapes and sizes.

Cells are the lowest level of organization in every life form. From organism to organism, the
count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells compared to that of bacteria.

Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialized functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of the
organisms is also present in the cells.

Characteristics of Cells

Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

• The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles surrounded by a

separate membrane.

• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction
and cell growth.

• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.

• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the

energy transactions vital for the survival of the cell.

• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.

• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell
by synthesizing selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to
their appropriate locations.

Structure of a Cell

Understanding cell structure and functions is key to understanding life processes.

Structure:

1. Plasma Membrane: Surrounds the cell, regulating the passage of substances.

2. Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell, containing organelles.

3. Nucleus: Houses genetic material (DNA), controlling cell activities.

4. Organelles: Specialized structures:

a. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Involved in protein and lipid metabolism.

b. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages molecules.

c. Mitochondria: Generates energy through respiration.

d. Lysosomes: Break down waste materials.

e. Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.

f. Centrioles (in animals): Assist in cell division.

g. Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell movement.

 Cells are the fundamental unit of life. They range in size from 0.0001 mm to nearly 150
mm across.

Types of Cells:

Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:

1. Prokaryotes

2. Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is
called the nucleoid.

• They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.

• The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.

• The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.

• Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.

They are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic
equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

Eukaryotic Cells

• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus.

 • The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.

• This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.

• The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolyte in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell-to-cell communication.

• They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

• There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For e.g., the plant
cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal
cells do not.

Functions of Cell

A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

1. Provides Support and Structure: All the organisms are made up of cells. They form
the structural basis of all the organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the
main components that function to provide support and structure to the organism. For
eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants
is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

2. Facilitate Growth Mitosis: In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the
daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.

3. Allows Transport of Substances: Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry
out various chemical processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the
chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport. Small
molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The
larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the
cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

4. Energy Production: Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes.
This energy is produced by the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants
and respiration in animals.

5. Aids in Reproduction: A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called

 mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent
cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically
different from the parent cells.

Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life. This is
because they are responsible for providing structure to the organisms and perform several functions
necessary for carrying out life’s processes.

Stem cells and their application:

What are Stem Cells?

Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells. These cells have strong healing power.
They can evolve into any type of cell.

Research on stem cells is going on, and it is believed that stem cell therapies can cure ailments like
paralysis and Alzheimer’s as well.

Types of cells

Stem cells are of the following different types:

• Embryonic Stem Cells

• Adult Stem Cells

• Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

• Mesenchymal stem cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells:

The fertilized egg begins to divide immediately. All the cells in the young embryo are
totipotent cells. These cells form a hollow structure within a few days. Cells in one region
group together to form the inner cell mass. This contains pluripotent cells that make up the
developing foetus.

The embryonic stem cells can be further classified as:

a. Totipotent Stem Cells: These can differentiate into all possible types of stem cells.

b. Pluripotent Stem Cells: These are the cells from an early embryo and can differentiate into
 any cell type.

c. Multipotent Stem Cells: These differentiate into a closely related cell type. E.g., the
hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into red blood cells and white blood cells.

d. Oligopotent Stem Cells: Adult lymphoid or myeloid cells are oligopotent. They can
differentiate into a few different types of cells.

e. Unipotent Stem Cells: They can produce cells only of their own type. Since they have the
ability to renew themselves, they are known as unipotent stem cells. E.g., Muscle stem cells.

2. Adult Stem Cells:

These stem cells are obtained from developed organs and tissues. They can repair and replace the
damaged tissues in the region where they are located. For eg., hematopoietic stem cells are found
in the bone marrow. These stem cells are used in bone marrow transplants to treat specific types
of cancers.

3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells:

These cells have been tested and arranged by converting tissue-specific cells into embryonic cells
in the lab. These cells are accepted as an important tool to learn about the normal development,
onset and progression of the disease and are also helpful in testing various drugs. These stem cells
share the same characteristics as embryonic cells do. They also have the potential to give rise to
all the different types of cells in the human body.

4. Mesenchymal Stem Cells

These cells are mainly formed from the connective tissues surrounding other tissues and organs,
known as the stroma. These mesenchymal stem cells are accurately called stromal cells. The first
mesenchymal stem cells were found in the bone marrow that is capable of developing bones, fat
cells, and cartilage.

There are different mesenchymal stem cells that are used to treat various diseases as they have
been developed from different tissues of the human body. The characteristics of mesenchymal
stem cells depend on the organ from where they originate.

Applications of Stem Cells

Following are the important applications of stem cells:

1. Tissue Regeneration: This is the most important application of stem cells. The stem cells can
 be used to grow a specific type of tissue or organ. This can be helpful in kidney and liver
transplants. The doctors have already used the stem cells from beneath the epidermis to develop
skin tissue that can repair severe burns or other injuries by tissue grafting.

2. Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease: A team of researchers have developed blood vessels in

mice using human stem cells. Within two weeks of implantation, the blood vessels forme their
network and were as efficient as the natural vessels.

3. Treatment of Brain Diseases: Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and
Alzheimer’s. These can help to replenish the damaged brain cells. Researchers have tried to
differentiate embryonic stem cells into these types of cells and make it possible to treat
diseases.

4. Blood Disease Treatment: The adult hematopoietic stem cells are used to treat cancers, sickle
cell anaemia, and other immunodeficiency diseases. These stem cells can be used to produce
red blood cells and white blood cells in the body.

Sources of Stem Cells

Stem Cells originate from different parts of the body. Adult stem cells can be found in specific
tissues in the human body. Matured cells are specialized to conduct various functions. Generally,
these cells can develop the kind of cells found in tissues where they reside.

Embryonic Stem Cells are derived from 5-day-old blastocysts that develop into embryos and are
pluripotent in nature. These cells can develop any type of cell and tissue in the body. These cells
have the potential to regenerate all the cells and tissues that have been lost because of any kind of
injury or disease.

Biomolecules

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the maintenance and
metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living molecules are the actual foot-soldiers of
the battle of sustenance of life.

They range from small molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to large
macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.
1.1 Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that play a crucial role in biology and are an
important source of energy for living organisms. They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O) atoms and are classified based on their molecular structure and function. General formula is
Cn(H2O)n. Types of carbohydrates are as follows,

Monosaccharides

These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include glucose and fructose. They are easily

soluble in water and serve as the primary source of energy for the body.
Figure: Structural formula of glucose

Figure: Ring structural formula of glucose, fructose, and galactose

Disaccharides

These are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides and include sucrose, lactose, and
maltose. They are commonly found in sugar and are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.
 Figure: Structural formula of sucrose, lactose, and maltose

Polysaccharides

PolysaccharidesThese are long chains of monosaccharides linked together. They serve

as storage molecules for energy, such as glycogen in animals and starch in plants, and also
provide structure and support, such as cellulose in plant cell walls. In addition to their role as
energy sources, carbohydrates also play important roles in cellular processes, such as cellular

signaling and recognition, and in regulating gene expression.

Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of starch

Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of cellulose

Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of glycogen

Overall, carbohydrates are essential components of biological systems and play a crucial role
in maintaining the health and survival of living organisms.

Properties and Functions of Carbohydrates

1. Properties of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O), usually in the ratio (CH₂O)n. They exhibit the following properties:

A. Physical Properties

• Solubility: Simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides) are water-

soluble due to their hydroxyl (-OH) groups, whereas complex carbohydrates
(polysaccharides) are less soluble or insoluble.
• Taste: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose) and some disaccharides (e.g.,
sucrose) have a sweet taste, while polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose) are
tasteless.
• Crystallinity: Many monosaccharides (e.g., glucose) can form crystalline structures.
• Optical Activity: Carbohydrates can rotate plane-polarized light due to the presence of
chiral centers (D- and L- forms).

B. Chemical Properties

• Reducing Nature: Some carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, maltose) have free aldehyde or
ketone groups, making them reducing sugars (Benedict’s test and Fehling’s test).
• Hydrolysis: Disaccharides and polysaccharides break down into simpler sugars when
treated with acids or enzymes.
• Glycosidic Bond Formation: Monosaccharides link via glycosidic bonds to form
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• Fermentation: Certain carbohydrates can undergo fermentation to produce alcohol and
CO₂ (e.g., yeast fermentation of glucose to ethanol).

Functions of Carbohydrates

A. Energy Source

• Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for living organisms.

• Glucose metabolism (glycolysis and cellular respiration) provides ATP for cellular
functions.

B. Energy Storage

• Plants store carbohydrates as starch (amylose & amylopectin).

• Animals store carbohydrates as glycogen in liver and muscles for quick energy
release.

C. Structural Role

• Cellulose is a key structural component of plant cell walls.

 • Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods and fungal cell walls.

D. Precursor for Biomolecules

• Carbohydrates contribute to the synthesis of nucleotides (DNA & RNA via ribose and
deoxyribose).
• Serve as precursors for amino acids, lipids, and other biomolecules.

E. Cell Signaling and Communication

• Glycoproteins and glycolipids in cell membranes play a role in cell recognition,

immunity, and signaling.

F. Role in Metabolism

• Carbohydrates regulate blood sugar levels (e.g., insulin and glucagon control glucose
metabolism).
• Maintain osmotic balance in cells.

G. Dietary Importance

• Fiber (cellulose) aids in digestion and prevents constipation.

• Complex carbohydrates provide sustained energy and regulate metabolic processes.

Carbohydrates are essential for life, playing a crucial role in energy metabolism, structural
integrity, and cellular interactions.

Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates have a wide range of applications in various industries, including:

• Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as sweeteners, thickeners, and
stabilizers in food and beverage products. They are also used as energy sources in sports
drinks and energy bars.
• Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations
to improve the stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. They are also used as
a sourceof energy in medical nutrition products.
• Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products, such as moisturizers,
shampoos, and conditioners, to provide hydration and improve skin and hair health.
• Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used in the production of biodegradable
plastics, biofuels, and other renewable energy sources.
• Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research tools in the fields of immunology,
virology, and cellular biology. They are used as ligands in protein-carbohydrate
interactions and as probes to study cellular signaling pathways.
1.2 Nucleic Acids:
Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the storage and transfer of
genetic information in all living organisms. There are two types of nucleic acids:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the genetic material that carries the
instructions for the development, functioning, and reproduction of all living
organisms. DNA is a double stranded helix structure composed of nucleotides, which
consist of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine,
guanine, cytosine, or thymine).
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the expression of the genetic
information stored in DNA by carrying the message from the DNA to the ribosome,
where it is used to build proteins. RNA is a single-stranded molecule composed of
nucleotides, which consist of a sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil).

Figure: Schematic representation of DNA and RNA

Both DNA and RNA play essential roles in the functioning of cells and organisms, and
their structures and interactions with other molecules are the basis for many biological
processes such as replication, transcription, and translation.
 Properties of Nucleic Acids
A. Physical Properties

• Solubility: Nucleic acids are hydrophilic and dissolve in water but are insoluble in
organic solvents like ethanol and chloroform.
• Viscosity: DNA solutions are highly viscous due to their large molecular size and
helical structure.
• Absorption of UV Light: Nucleic acids absorb ultraviolet (UV) light at 260 nm,
which helps in their quantification.
• Denaturation and Renaturation: DNA strands can separate (denature) upon heating
and reanneal upon cooling, which is important in replication and PCR.

B. Chemical Properties

• Polymer Structure: Nucleic acids are long-chain polymers of nucleotides, linked by

phosphodiester bonds.
• Acidic Nature: Due to the phosphate groups, nucleic acids behave as acids.
• Hydrolysis: DNA and RNA can be broken down into nucleotides by enzymes like
nucleases.
• Base Pairing: DNA follows Chargaff’s rule (A pairs with T, C pairs with G) via
hydrogen bonds, giving it a double-helical structure.

Functions of Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids, primarily DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), play
essential roles in the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information. Their main
functions include:

1. Genetic Information Storage (DNA) – DNA stores genetic information that

determines the traits and functions of an organism. It carries instructions for protein
synthesis and cellular activities.
2. Genetic Transmission (DNA & RNA) – DNA transmits genetic information from one
generation to the next through replication. RNA helps in the expression of this genetic
information.
3. Protein Synthesis (RNA) – RNA plays a crucial role in protein synthesis:
o mRNA (messenger RNA) carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes.
o tRNA (transfer RNA) transports amino acids to the ribosomes.
 o rRNA (ribosomal RNA) helps in forming ribosomes and catalyzing protein
synthesis.
4. Regulation of Gene Expression (RNA & DNA) – Certain RNA molecules, such as
microRNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA), regulate gene expression by
promoting or inhibiting translation.
5. Energy Transfer (ATP, NAD, FAD) – Some nucleotides, such as ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), and FAD (flavin adenine
dinucleotide), function as energy carriers and coenzymes in metabolic processes.
6. Cellular Signaling (cAMP & cGMP) – Cyclic nucleotides like cAMP (cyclic
adenosine monophosphate) and cGMP (cyclic guanosine monophosphate) act as
secondary messengers in signal transduction pathways.
7. Catalysis of Reactions (Ribozymes) – Certain RNA molecules, known as ribozymes,
can catalyze biochemical reactions, such as splicing and peptide bond formation.

These functions make nucleic acids fundamental to life, influencing everything from heredity
to cellular metabolism.

1.3 Proteins:
Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building blocks
called amino acids. They play a vital role in the structure, function, and regulation of cells,
tissues, and organs.
Properties of Proteins

Proteins are complex biomolecules made up of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They
play essential roles in structure, function, and regulation within living organisms.

Physical Properties of Proteins

A. Solubility

• Fibrous proteins (e.g., collagen, keratin) are insoluble in water due to their long,
linear structure.
• Globular proteins (e.g., hemoglobin, enzymes) are soluble in water because they
have hydrophilic outer surfaces.

B. Shape

• Proteins can be fibrous (elongated) or globular (spherical) depending on their

function and structure.
C. Optical Activity

• Due to chiral amino acids, proteins can rotate plane-polarized light (L-configuration
is predominant in nature).

D. Colloidal Nature

• Proteins form colloidal solutions in water due to their large molecular size.

E. Denaturation

• Proteins lose their structure and function when exposed to heat, pH changes, or
chemicals (e.g., cooking egg whites causes protein denaturation).

Chemical Properties of Proteins

A. Amphoteric Nature

• Proteins can act as both acids and bases, depending on the pH of the solution.

B. Peptide Bond Formation

• Proteins are polypeptides formed by amino acids linked through peptide bonds (-
CO-NH-).

C. Hydrolysis

• Proteins can be broken down into amino acids by acids, bases, or enzymes (e.g.,
pepsin, trypsin).

D. Precipitation

• Proteins precipitate when treated with salts (salting out), alcohol, or heat.

E. Color Reactions

• Proteins give color-based tests, such as:

o Biuret test (violet color) – detects peptide bonds.
o Xanthoproteic test (yellow color) – detects aromatic amino acids.
o Ninhydrin test (blue or purple) – detects free amino acids.

Proteins are vital for life due to their diverse physical and chemical properties, which enable
them to perform structural, catalytic, transport, and regulatory functions in cells.

Functions of Proteins
Proteins perform a wide range of functions in the body, including
1) Catalyzing chemical reactions
• Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like glucose and
maltose. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.
 • Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is found in
the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. It is
found in most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced
in the pancreas and released into the small intestine.
• ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. It is found in the
mitochondria of cells.
2) Transporting molecules
• Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen
from the lungs to the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: Albumin is a protein found in blood plasma that helps transport various
substances such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs throughout the body.
• Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood from the site of
absorption in the gut to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues that require it.
• Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that transport lipids (fats)
in the bloodstream. Examples include ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver, spleen,
and bone marrow.
• Glut transporters: Glut transporters are a family of proteins that transport glucose and
other sugars across cell membranes. Examples include GLUT1 and GLUT4.
3) Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and provides support to
tissues such as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and teeth.
• Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues such
as skin, lungs, arteries, and ligaments.
• Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and the outer
layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins that are involved in muscle
contraction and provide the mechanical force required for movement.
• Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of microtubules, which
provide support to cells and are involved in various cellular processes such as cell
division and intracellular transport.
 • Laminin: Laminin is a protein that forms part of the extracellular matrix and provides
structural support to cells in tissues such as skin, muscles, and organs. And
4) Regulating cell behaviour
• Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on the surface of
cells and bind to specific signaling molecules such as hormones, growth factors, and
neurotransmitters. When these molecules bind to the receptor, they trigger a cellular
response, such as a change in gene expression or the activation of an intracellular
signaling pathway.
• Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the body.
Many enzymes are involved in regulating cellular behavior, such as kinases and
phosphatases that regulate protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation,
respectively.
• Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and tubulin, play a critical
role in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
• Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and regulate
gene expression. They play a critical role in regulating cellular differentiation,
proliferation, and apoptosis.
• Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are proteins that are involved in cell-to-cell and
cellto- matrix adhesion. They play a critical role in regulating cell behavior such as
cell migration, tissue development, and wound healing.
• Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell
membrane. They play a critical role in regulating cellular excitability and
communication.

Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation, and muscle
contraction. The structure of a protein determines its function, and the sequence of amino acids
in a protein determines its structure.
There are 20 different types of amino acids, and the specific sequence of amino acids in a
protein determines its unique structure and function.
Proteins are synthesized by cells from the genetic information encoded in DNA. The process
of protein synthesis begins when the genetic code for a particular protein is transcribed into a
molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus and
into the cytoplasm, where it is translated into a protein by ribosomes. Proteins play a critical
role in many biological processes, and their dysfunction is involved in the development of
many diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders. Understanding the
structure and function of proteins is therefore a major focus of biomedical research, with the
goal of developing new treatments and therapies for these diseases.

1.4 Lipids:
Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and some hormones.

Figure: Schematic representation of lipid molecule, bilayer formation, and miscelle

formation.

Figure: Molecular structure of phospholipid (cell membrane) and triglyceride (fat)

Role of Lipids
 • Energy storage: Lipids are a major source of stored energy in the body, and they can
be broken down to release energy when it is needed.
• Insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body, helping to regulate temperature and
protect against heat loss.
• Cell membrane structure: Lipids are a major component of cell membranes, helping
to maintain their fluidity and stability.
• Hormone synthesis: Some lipids, such as cholesterol, are precursors to hormones, and
are necessary for their production.
• Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat, but not in water. This makes them ideal for
carrying fat soluble vitamins and other lipophilic compounds through the
bloodstream.

There are several types of lipids, including saturated and unsaturated fats,
phospholipids, and steroids. It is important to have a balanced diet that includes a moderate
amount of healthy lipids, such as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, while limiting the
intake of saturated and trans fats. This can help to maintain overall health and reduce the risk
of chronic diseases such as heart disease and stroke.

Properties and Functions of Lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic biomolecules that include fats, oils, phospholipids,
steroids, and waxes. They play essential roles in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and
signalling.

1. Properties of Lipids
A. Physical Properties

• Insolubility in Water: Lipids are hydrophobic and do not dissolve in water but are
soluble in organic solvents (e.g., chloroform, ether, benzene).
• Lower Density: Lipids are less dense than water, allowing fats and oils to float.
• Varied Melting Points:
o Saturated fats (e.g., butter) have higher melting points and are solid at room
temperature.
o Unsaturated fats (e.g., vegetable oils) have lower melting points and are liquid
at room temperature.
• Greasy or Oily Texture: Lipids have a slippery feel due to their hydrophobic nature.
B. Chemical Properties

• Ester Formation: Lipids are formed by ester bonds between glycerol and fatty acids
(e.g., triglycerides).
• Hydrolysis: Lipids can be broken down into glycerol and fatty acids by hydrolysis
(e.g., digestion by lipase enzymes).
• Oxidation: Lipids undergo oxidation to produce energy (ATP) and, in some cases,
peroxidation leading to rancidity.
• Saponification: Fats react with alkali to form soap (glycerol + fatty acid salts).
• Emulsification: Lipids can form emulsions with the help of emulsifiers like bile salts.

2. Functions of Lipids
A. Energy Storage

• Lipids store more energy per gram than carbohydrates and proteins, providing long-
term energy storage in adipose tissue.

B. Structural Component of Cell Membranes

• Phospholipids and cholesterol are key components of cell membranes, maintaining

fluidity and integrity.

C. Insulation and Protection

• Lipids act as thermal insulators, helping regulate body temperature.

• Provide cushioning and protection for vital organs.

D. Hormone Production

• Steroid lipids (e.g., cholesterol) are precursors for hormones like estrogen,
testosterone, and cortisol.

E. Signaling Molecules

• Lipids serve as cell signaling molecules (e.g., prostaglandins, which regulate

inflammation and pain).
F. Absorption of Fat-Soluble Vitamins

• Lipids aid in the absorption of vitamins A, D, E, and K, which are essential for
various physiological functions.

G. Waterproofing and Lubrication

• Waxes (e.g., in plants and animal skin) provide waterproofing.

• Lipids help in lubrication (e.g., sebum in the skin).

Lipids are crucial for energy storage, cellular structures, metabolism, and overall health,
making them essential biomolecules for living organisms.

Engineering Applications of Lipids

1. Cosmetics: Lipids are commonly used in cosmetics, such as moisturizers, to improve
skin hydration and texture.
2. Food industry: Lipids are used as ingredients in food products, such as margarine and
frying oils, to improve texture, flavor, and shelf life.
3. Medical devices: Lipids are used in medical devices, such as lipid-based drug delivery
systems, to improve the delivery and efficacy of drugs.
4. Biofuels: Lipids, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, can be converted into biofuels,
such as biodiesel and bioethanol, to provide a renewable source of energy.
5. Surface modification: Lipids can be used to modify the surface properties of
materials, such as metals and polymers, to improve their performance and
biocompatibility.
6. Surfactants: Lipids are used as surfactants, which are compounds that reduce surface
tension and improve the mixing of oil and water-based substances.

It is important to note that the properties and applications of lipids can vary depending on
the specific type of lipid and the processing method used. Further research is needed to fully
understand and harness the potential of lipids in engineering applications.

1.5 Enzymes:
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions. They speed up the rate of
chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Enzymes are specific to the type of
reaction they catalyze, and they bind to specific substrates to facilitate the reaction. Enzymes
play a crucial role in various metabolic pathways, digestion, and cellular respiration.
 Figure: Schematic representation of working of enzyme as catalyst

Properties of Enzymes for Engineering Applications

Enzymes have several properties that make them ideal for engineering applications, including:
• Specificity: Enzymes have a high level of specificity for the substrates they bind and
the reactions they catalyze, making them highly efficient at performing specific tasks.
• Reactivity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed
in the process, allowing them to perform multiple cycles of the same reaction.
• Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at a wide range of temperatures and pH values,
making them useful in a variety of industrial processes.
• Renewability: Enzymes are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable
resources, making them an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional chemical
catalysts.
• Cost-effectiveness: Enzymes can be produced in large quantities through
fermentation, making them a cost-effective alternative to synthetic catalysts in many
applications.
These properties make enzymes ideal for use in various industrial and engineering applications,
from bioremediation and biofuel production to food and beverage processing and textile
production.

Properties of Enzymes
A. Physical Properties

• Macromolecular Nature: Enzymes are large protein molecules with a complex

three-dimensional structure.
• Specificity: Each enzyme is highly specific to a particular substrate due to its unique
active site (Lock and Key model or Induced Fit model).
 • High Efficiency: Enzymes greatly accelerate reaction rates—often by millions of
times compared to uncatalyzed reactions.
• Denaturation: Enzymes lose their activity when exposed to extreme temperature,
pH, or chemicals that disrupt their structure.

B. Chemical Properties

• Catalytic Power: Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions without being
consumed.
• Reversibility: Many enzyme-catalyzed reactions are reversible, depending on
reactant and product concentrations.
• Temperature Sensitivity: Enzymes have an optimal temperature (usually 35–40°C
in humans) beyond which they become denatured.
• pH Sensitivity: Each enzyme has an optimal pH (e.g., pepsin in the stomach works
best at pH ~2, while amylase in saliva works best at pH ~7).
• Cofactor Dependence: Some enzymes require cofactors (metal ions like Mg²⁺,
Zn²⁺) or coenzymes (organic molecules like vitamins) for activity.
• Inhibition: Enzymes can be inhibited by competitive inhibitors (blocking the active
site) or non-competitive inhibitors (altering enzyme structure).

2. Functions of Enzymes
A. Catalysis of Metabolic Reactions

• Enzymes control and regulate all biochemical reactions in cells, such as:
o Digestion: Amylase (breaks down starch), lipase (breaks down fats), protease
(breaks down proteins).
o Energy Production: Enzymes in glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and ATP synthesis.

B. DNA Replication & Repair

• DNA polymerase helps in DNA replication, while DNA ligase helps in DNA repair.

C. Signal Transduction & Cell Communication

• Enzymes like kinases and phosphatases regulate cell signaling pathways by

modifying proteins.
D. Detoxification

• Liver enzymes (e.g., cytochrome P450) help detoxify harmful substances.

E. Industrial & Medical Applications

• Used in food processing (e.g., lactase for lactose-free milk), pharmaceuticals (e.g.,
proteases in wound healing), and biotechnology (e.g., PCR enzymes in genetic
research).

Enzymes are essential for life, enabling biological processes to occur efficiently and under
controlled conditions.

Engineering Applications of Enzymes

1. Bioremediation: Enzymes are used to break down pollutants in the environment, such
as oils, pesticides, and toxic waste.
2. Biofuel production: Enzymes are used to convert plant material into biofuels, such
as ethanol and biodiesel.
3. Food and beverage production: Enzymes are widely used in the food and beverage
industry for processes such as baking, brewing, cheese making, and juice production.
4. Textile production: Enzymes are used to remove stains, whiten fabrics, and improve
the softness of textiles.
5. Detergents: Enzymes are used in laundry detergents to break down protein, starch,
and lipid stains.
6. Pharmaceuticals: Enzymes are used in the production of various pharmaceutical
products, such as antibiotics and vaccines.
7. Research and biotechnology: Enzymes are used as tools in genetic engineering,
protein engineering, and molecular biology.

Hormones: Properties & Functions

1. Definition of Hormones

Hormones are biochemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands that regulate

physiological processes in the body. They travel through the bloodstream to target organs,
where they bind to specific receptors and trigger responses.
2. Properties of Hormones

1. Chemical Nature – Hormones can be proteins, peptides, steroids, or amines.

2. Specificity – Each hormone affects only specific target cells with corresponding
receptors.
3. Low Concentration, High Effect – Hormones are effective in minute quantities.
4. Regulation by Feedback Mechanism – Hormone secretion is often controlled by
negative feedback (e.g., insulin & glucose levels).
5. Transport in Blood – Some hormones are water-soluble (e.g., peptide hormones) and
travel freely in blood, while lipid-soluble hormones (e.g., steroid hormones) require
carrier proteins.
6. Short or Long-Term Effects – Some hormones act quickly (e.g., adrenaline), while
others have long-term effects (e.g., growth hormone).

3. Types of Hormones & Their Functions

Hormone Secreted by Function
Lowers blood glucose levels by
Insulin Pancreas (Beta cells)
promoting glucose uptake in cells.
Raises blood glucose by stimulating
Glucagon Pancreas (Alpha cells)
glycogen breakdown.
Thyroxine (T4) & Regulates metabolism, growth, and
Thyroid Gland
Triiodothyronine (T3) energy production.
Lowers blood calcium levels by
Calcitonin Thyroid Gland
inhibiting bone resorption.
Increases blood calcium by promoting
Parathyroid Hormone
Parathyroid Gland bone breakdown and calcium
(PTH)
absorption.
Regulates metabolism, reduces
Cortisol Adrenal Cortex inflammation, and helps with stress
response.
Maintains sodium and potassium
Aldosterone Adrenal Cortex
balance, regulates blood pressure.
Increases heart rate, blood pressure,
Adrenaline (Epinephrine) Adrenal Medulla and prepares body for "fight or flight"
response.
Noradrenaline Works with adrenaline to enhance
Adrenal Medulla
(Norepinephrine) stress responses.
Pituitary Gland Stimulates growth, protein synthesis,
Growth Hormone (GH)
(Anterior) and cell division.
Pituitary Gland Promotes milk production in lactating
Prolactin (PRL)
(Anterior) mothers.
Stimulates uterine contractions during
Hypothalamus (Stored
Oxytocin childbirth and milk ejection during
in Posterior Pituitary)
breastfeeding.
Hormone Secreted by Function
Antidiuretic Hormone Hypothalamus (Stored Regulates water balance by reducing
(ADH/Vasopressin) in Posterior Pituitary) urine output.
Regulates male reproductive functions
Testosterone Testes
and secondary sexual characteristics.
Regulates female reproductive
Estrogen Ovaries functions and secondary sexual
characteristics.
Prepares uterus for pregnancy and
Progesterone Ovaries
maintains pregnancy.
Regulates sleep-wake cycles
Melatonin Pineal Gland
(circadian rhythm).

Disorders Related to Hormones

1. Diabetes Mellitus – Insulin deficiency or resistance leads to high blood sugar.

2. Hypothyroidism – Low thyroid hormone levels cause slow metabolism, weight gain,
and fatigue.
3. Hyperthyroidism – Excess thyroid hormones cause rapid metabolism, weight loss, and
anxiety.
4. Cushing’s Syndrome – Excess cortisol leads to weight gain, high blood pressure, and
muscle weakness.
5. Addison’s Disease – Low cortisol causes fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure.

Hence, hormones play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating metabolism,

growth, reproduction, and stress response. Their proper functioning is essential for overall
health, and imbalances can lead to various disorders.