ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

LECTURE NOTES

on

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

2020 – 2021

II B. Tech II Semester (EC405PC)

Mr. JEEVAN YANDA, Assistant Professor

Guru Nanak Institute of Technology

Ibrahimpatnam, R.R.District – 501 506 (T.S)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

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EC405PC: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

B.Tech. II Year II Sem LTPC
3003
Pre-requisite: Electronic Devices and Circuits

Course Objectives:
➢ Learn the concepts of high frequency analysis of transistors.
➢ To give understanding of various types of amplifier circuits such as small signal, cascaded, large signal
and tuned amplifiers.
➢ To familiarize the Concept of feedback in amplifiers so as to differentiate between negative and
positive feedback
➢ To construct various multivibrators using transistors and sweep circuits.

Course Outcomes: Upon completing this course, the student will be able to
➢ Design the multistage amplifiers and understand the concepts of High Frequency Analysis of
Transistors.
➢ Utilize the Concepts of negative feedback to improve the stability of amplifiers and positive feedback
to generate sustained oscillations
➢ Design and realize different classes of Power Amplifiers and tuned amplifiers useable for audio and
Radio applications.
➢ Design Multivibrators and sweep circuits for various applications.

UNIT -III
Oscillators: Condition for Oscillations, RC type
Oscillators-RC phase shift and Wien-bridge
Oscillators, LC type Oscillators –Generalized analysis
of LC Oscillators, Hartley and Colpitts
Oscillators, Frequency and amplitude stability of
Oscillators, Crystal Oscillator

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UNIT II
Oscillators

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Oscillators convert a DC input (the supply voltage) into an AC output (the waveform), which can have a
wide range of different wave shapes and frequencies that can be either complicated in nature (square,
sawtooth or triangular shaped waveforms) or simple sine waves depending upon the application.
An Oscillator is basically an Amplifier with “Positive Feedback”, or regenerative feedback (in-phase) and
one of the many problems in electronic circuit design is stopping amplifiers from oscillating while trying to
get oscillators to oscillate.

Amplifiers convert DC power into AC output power only if an external AC input signal is present.

Oscillators work because they overcome the losses of their feedback resonator circuit either in the form of
a capacitor, inductor or both in the same circuit by applying DC energy at the required frequency into this
resonator circuit. In other words, an oscillator is an amplifier which uses positive feedback that generates an
output frequency without the use of an input signal.
Thus, Oscillators are self-sustaining circuits generating an periodic output waveform at a precise frequency
and for any electronic circuit to operate as an oscillator
An oscillator has a small signal feedback amplifier with an open-loop gain equal to or slightly greater than
one for oscillations to start but to continue oscillations the average loop gain must return to unity. In addition
to these reactive components, an amplifying device such as Bipolar Transistor is required. Basic Oscillator

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Feedback Circuit

Basic oscillator circuit

Where: β is a feedback fraction

Oscillator Gain Without Feedback

Oscillator Gain with Feedback

Oscillators are circuits that generate a continuous voltage output waveform at a required frequency with the
values of the inductors, capacitors or resistors forming a frequency selective LC resonant tank circuit and
feedback network. This feedback network is an attenuation network which has a gain of less than one (β <1)
and starts oscillations when Aβ >1 which returns to unity (Aβ =1) once oscillations commence.
There are basically types of Oscillators
Based on the wave forms generated:
Sinusoidal Oscillators – these are known as Harmonic Oscillators and are generally a “LC
Tuned-feedback” or “RC tuned-feedback” type Oscillator that generates a purely sinusoidal
waveform which is of constant amplitude and frequency.

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Non-Sinusoidal Oscillators – these are known as Relaxation Oscillators and generate complex
non-sinusoidal waveforms that changes very quickly from one condition of stability to another such
as “Square-wave”, “Triangular-wave” or “Saw-toothed-wave” type waveforms.
Based on the fundamental mechanisms involved:
Negative Resistance oscillator: It uses negative resistance of the amplifying device to neutralize
the positive resistance of the oscillator.
Feedback Oscillator: It uses positive feedback in the feedback amplifier to satisfy the Barkhausen
Criterion.
Based on the frequency generated:
(a) Audio Frequency oscillator (AFO) - Upto 20KHz
(b) Radio Frequency oscillator (RFO) - 20 KHz to 30MHz
(c) Very High Frequency oscillator (VHF) - 30MHz to 300MHz
(d) Ultra High Frequency oscillator (UHF) - 300MHz to 3GHz
(e) Microwave Frequency oscillator - Above 3GHz
Based on the type of circuit used, sine wave oscillators may be classified as
(a) LC tuned Oscillator
(b) RC phase shift oscillator
Application of Oscillators
• Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
– Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals to IF signals in a receiver;
– Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
– Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
– Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.
3.1 Condition for Oscillations
Barkhausen’s Criteria for Oscillation
1. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier 𝐴 and the feedback factor 𝛽 is
unity, i.e., |𝛽𝐴| =1.
2. The total phase shift around the loop is 0° or 360°.
The voltage derived from the output using feedback network Vf must be in phase with Vi, so Vf is
sufficient to act as 𝑉𝑖 when |𝛽𝐴|=1 and the phase of Vf is same as that of Vi , i.e., feedback network should
introduce 180° phase shift in addition to the 180° phase shift introduced by the inverting amplifier. So total
phase shift around the loop is 360°

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➢ if |𝛽𝐴|>1, the oscillations are of growing type

➢ If |𝛽𝐴|<1, the oscillations are of decaying type, i.e., the amplitude decreases and finally oscillations
stop
➢ If |𝛽𝐴|=1, the oscillations are with constant frequency and amplitude and are called sustained
oscillations
➢ In practice, |𝛽𝐴| is made greater than 1 to start the oscillations and then the circuit adjusts itself to
get |𝛽𝐴|=1, resulting in self-sustained oscillations

Build-up of oscillations

Growing oscillations

Decaying oscillations

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Sustained oscillations
3.2 RC type Oscillators
we know that a single stage transistor amplifier can produce 180o of phase shift between its output and input
signals when connected as a common-emitter type amplifier and that its output signal across the collector
load depends entirely on the input signal injected into the transistor’s base terminal.
But we can configure transistor stages to operate as oscillators by placing resistor-capacitor (RC) networks
around the transistor to provide the required regenerative feedback without the need for a tank circuit.
Frequency selective RC coupled amplifier circuits are easy to build and can be made to oscillate at any
desired frequency by selecting the appropriate values of resistance and capacitance
There are two types of Resistor- Capacitor type Oscillators
1. Phase shift Oscillator
2. Wien Bridge Oscillator
3.3 RC phase shift Oscillator
In an RC Oscillator circuit, the input is shifted 180o through the feedback circuit returning the signal out-
of-phase and 180o again through an inverting amplifier stage to produces the required positive feedback.
This then gives us “180o + 180o = 360o” of phase shift which is effectively the same as 0o, thereby giving us
the required positive feedback. In other words, the total phase shift of the feedback loop should be “0” or
any multiple of 360o to obtain the same effect.

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RC Phase-Shift Network

Theoretically in a simple RC circuit, the output voltage will lead the input voltage by a phase angle Φ =90°.
Anyway, in practical case the phase angle will be something below 90° just because it is impossible to get a
purely ideal capacitor. Phase shift of a practical RC network depends on the value of the capacitor, resistor
and the operating frequency.
Just by making an RC network with phase shift equal to 60° and cascading three of them together the desired
phase shift of 180° can be attained. This 180° phase shift by the RC network plus the 180° phase shift made
by the transistor gives a total phase shift of 360° between the input and output which is the necessary
condition for maintaining sustained oscillations. The circuit diagram of a three stage RC network producing a
phase shift of 180° is shown in the figure below.

Connecting such a three stage RC phase shift network between the input and output of a common emitter
transistor amplifier will result in a transistor-based RC phase shift oscillator. The circuit diagram is shown
below.

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In the circuit diagram resistor R1 and the resistor R2 gives a voltage divider bias to the transistor Q1.
Resistor Rc limits the collector current while Re is meant for thermal stability. Ce is the emitter by-pass
capacitor and Cout is the output DC decoupling capacitor. By using three RC phase shift stages the
frequency stability of the oscillator can be further improved.
The frequency of the transistor RC phase shift oscillator can be derived by considering equivalent circuit:

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RC Phase shift Oscillator Analysis

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Where F is the frequency, R is the resistance, C is the capacitance. The RC pahse shift oscillator can be made
variable by making the resistors or capacitors variable.
Although it is possible to cascade together only two single-pole RC stages to provide the required 180o of
phase shift (90o + 90o), the stability of the oscillator at low frequencies is generally poor.
One of the most important features of an RC Oscillator is its frequency stability which is its ability to
provide a constant frequency sine wave output under varying load conditions. By cascading three or even
four RC stages together (4 x 45o), the stability of the oscillator can be greatly improved.
RC Oscillators are stable and provide a well-shaped sine wave output with the frequency being
proportional to 1/RC and therefore, a wider frequency range is possible when using a variable capacitor.
However, RC Oscillators are restricted to frequency applications because of their bandwidth limitations to
produce the desired phase shift at high frequencies.

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Example Problems

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3.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator

The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective form
of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit
that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a popular
circuit as an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of the output signal is considerably different from
the previous phase shift RC Oscillator.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit connected with a
parallel RC of the same component values producing a phase delay or phase advance circuit depending
upon the frequency. At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o

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Wien Bridge Oscillator operation

In the bridge circuit R1 in series with C1, R2 in parallel with C2, and R3, R4 form the four arms.
This bridge circuit can be used as feedback network for an oscillator, provided that the phase shift through
the amplifier is zero. This requisite condition is achieved by using a two-stage amplifier. In this arrangement
the output of the second stage is supplied back to the feedback network and the voltage across the parallel
combination C2 R2 is fed to the input of the first stage. Transistor Q1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier
whereas the transistor Q2 as an inverter to cause a phase shift of 180°. Resistors R3 and R4 are used to
stabilize the amplitude of the output.
The circuit is set in oscillation by any random change in base current of transistor Q1(may be due to noise
inherent in the transistor or variation in voltage of dc supply.) This variation in base current is amplified in
collector circuit of transistor Q1 but with a phase-shift of 180°. the output of transistor Q1 is fed to the base
of second transistor Q2 through capacitor C4. Now a still further amplified and twice phase-reversed signal
appears at the collector of the transistor Q2. Having been inverted twice, the output signal will be in phase
with the signal input to the base of transistor Q1 A part of the output signal at transistor Q2 is feedback to
the input points of the bridge circuit (point A-C). The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks. The
positive feedback is through R1 C1 R2, C2 to transistor Q1 and the negative feedback is through the voltage
divider (R3 and R4) to the input of transistor Q1. which is used to stabilize the amplitude of the output.

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The continuous frequency variation in this oscillator can be had by varying the two capacitors C1 and
C2 simultaneously. We can change the frequency range of the oscillator by switching into the circuit
different values of resistors R1 and R2.
the Frequency Selection Network is given as

Z1
R1 C1 Z2

Vi C2 R2 Vo

1 1
Let X C1 = and XC2 =
C1 C 2

Z1 = R1 − jX C1

−1
1 1  − jR2 X C 2
Z2 =  +  =
 R2 − jX C 2  R2 − jX C 2

Vo Z2 (− jR2 X C 2 / R2 − jX C 2 )
= = =
Vi Z1 + Z 2 ( R1 − jX C1 ) + (− jR2 X C 2 / R2 − jX C 2 )

− jR2 X C 2
=
( R1 − jX C1 )( R2 − jX C 2 ) − jR2 X C 2
 can be rewritten as:
R2 X C 2
=
R1 X C 2 + R2 X C1 + R2 X C 2 + j ( R1 R2 − X C1 X C 2 )

For Barkhausen Criterion, imaginary part = 0, i.e.,

R1 R2 − X C1 X C 2 = 0
1 1
or R1 R2 =
C1 C2
  = 1 / R1 R2C1C2

Let R1=R2=R and C1= C2=C and by setting Imaginary part = 0

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We get 1
=
RC
Advantages
➢ Provides a stable low distortion sinusoidal output over a wide range of frequency.
➢ The frequency range can be selected simply by using decade resistance boxes.
➢ The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied by varying capacitances C1 and C2 simultaneously.
The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
Disadvantages
➢ The circuit needs two transistors and a large number of other components.
➢ The maximum frequency output is limited because of amplitude and the phase-shift characteristics of
amplifier.
Example Problems

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3.5 LC type Oscillators

LC Oscillators are commonly used in radio-frequency circuits because of their good phase noise
characteristics and their ease of implementation
consists of an inductive coil, L and a capacitor, C. The capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic
field and which produces a potential (static voltage) across its plates, while the inductive coil stores its
energy in the form of an electromagnetic field. The capacitor is charged up to the DC supply voltage
The charged capacitor is now connected in parallel across the inductive coil so the capacitor begins to
discharge itself through the coil. The voltage across C starts falling as the current through the coil begins to
rise.
This rising current sets up an electromagnetic field around the coil which resists this flow of current. When
the capacitor, C is completely discharged the energy that was originally stored in the capacitor, C as an
electrostatic field is now stored in the inductive coil, L as an electromagnetic field around the coils windings.
As there is now no external voltage in the circuit to maintain the current within the coil, it starts to fall as the
electromagnetic field begins to collapse. A back emf is induced in the coil (e = -L di/dt) keeping the current
flowing in the original direction.
This current charges up capacitor, C with the opposite polarity to its original charge. C continues to charge
up until the current reduces to zero and the electromagnetic field of the coil has collapsed completely.
The energy originally introduced into the circuit through the switch, has been returned to the capacitor which
again has an electrostatic voltage potential across it, although it is now of the opposite polarity. The
capacitor now starts to discharge again back through the coil and the whole process is repeated. The polarity
of the voltage changes as the energy is passed back and forth between the capacitor and inductor producing
an AC type sinusoidal voltage and current waveform.
This process then forms the basis of an LC oscillators tank circuit and theoretically this cycling back and
forth will continue indefinitely
This oscillatory action of passing energy back and forth between the capacitor, C to the inductor, L would
continue indefinitely if it was not for energy losses within the circuit.
3.5.1 Generalized analysis of LC Oscillators
LC oscillator is a type of oscillator where a LC (inductor-capacitor) tank circuit is used for giving the
required positive feedback for sustaining the oscillations. The LC tank circuit is also termed as LC resonant
circuit or LC tuned circuit. According to the Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillations, a circuit will
sustain stable oscillations only for frequencies at which the loop gain of the system is equal to or greater than
1 and the phase shift between input and output is 0 or an integral multiple of 2π

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The generalized circuit of an LC circuit is given as

−
Av Ro
~

+
2 Z1 Z2 1

Z3
Zp

➢ The frequency selection network (Z1, Z2 and Z3) provides a phase shift of 1800
➢ The amplifier provides an addition shift of 1800

Av Ro
~

+
Vf Z1 Z2 Vo

Z3
Zp
Z1
V f = Vo = Vo
Z1 + Z 3
Z p = Z 2 //( Z1 + Z 3 )
Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
=
Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3

For the equivalent circuit from the output

Ro Io
+
+ Zp Vo
− −AvVi
−

− AvVi V V − Av Z p
= o or o =
Ro + Z p Z p Vi Ro + Z p

Therefore, the amplifier gain is obtained,

Vo − Av Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
A= =
Vi Ro ( Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 ) + Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
The loop gain,

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− Av Z1Z 2
A =
Ro ( Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 ) + Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
If the impedance are all pure reactances, i.e.,
Z1 = jX 1 , Z 2 = jX 2 and Z 3 = jX 3
The loop gain becomes,
Av X 1 X 2
A =
jRo ( X 1 + X 2 + X 3 ) − X 2 ( X 1 + X 3 )

The imaginary part = 0 only when X1+ X2+ X3=0

➢ It indicates that at least one reactance must be –ve (capacitor)
➢ X1 and X2 must be of same type and X3 must be of opposite type

from Barkhausen Criterion With imaginary part = 0,

− Av X 1 Av X 1
A = =
X1 + X 3 X2

For Unit Gain & 180o Phase-shift,

X2
A = 1  Av =
X1

3.6 Colpitt’s Oscillator

The Colpitts Oscillator design uses two centre-tapped capacitors in series with a parallel inductor to form its
resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal oscillations

The Colpitts oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider network as its feedback source. The two
capacitors, C1 and C2 are placed across a single common inductor, L as shown. Then C1, C2 and L form the
tuned tank circuit with the condition for oscillations being: XC1 + XC2 = XL,
The advantage of this type of capacitive circuit configuration is that with less self and mutual inductance
within the tank circuit, frequency stability of the oscillator is improved along with a more simple design.
The basic Colpitts oscillator using BJT given as

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The emitter terminal of the transistor is effectively connected to the junction of the two
capacitors, C1 and C2 which are connected in series and act as a simple voltage divider. When the power
supply is firstly applied, capacitors C1 and C2 charge up and then discharge through the coil L. The
oscillations across the capacitors are applied to the base-emitter junction and appear in the amplified at the
collector output.
The emitter terminal of the transistor is effectively connected to the junction of the two
capacitors, C1 and C2 which are connected in series and act as a simple voltage divider. When the power
supply is firstly applied, capacitors C1 and C2 charge up and then discharge through the coil L. The
oscillations across the capacitors are applied to the base-emitter junction and appear in the amplified at the
collector output.
When the circuit is oscillating, the voltage at collector, relative to emitter, is 180o out-of-phase with the
voltage at base relative to emitter. At the frequency of oscillation, the impedance of the Collector load is
resistive and an increase in Base voltage causes a decrease in the Collector voltage.
Thus there is a 180o phase change in the voltage between the Base and Collector and this along with the
original 180o phase shift in the feedback loop provides the correct phase relationship of positive feedback
for oscillations to be maintained.
The amount of feedback is determined by the ratio of C1 and C2. These two capacitances are generally
“ganged” together to provide a constant amount of feedback so that as one is adjusted the other
automatically follows.

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The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts oscillator is determined by the resonant frequency of the LC tank
circuit and is given as:
The condition for Oscillations is given as
XI + X2 + X3 = 0.
𝑗 𝑗
𝑋1 = − , 𝑋2 = − , 𝑋2 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶2

Therefore
𝑗 𝑗
− − + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 0
𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶2
1 1
𝜔𝐿 = +
𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶2
𝜔𝐶1 + 𝜔𝐶2
𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶𝜔𝐶21

1 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝜔= √( )
√𝐿 𝐶𝐶21

1 1 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝑓= √( )
2𝜋 √𝐿 𝐶𝐶21

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Example Problems

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3.7 The Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley Oscillator design uses two inductive coils in series with a parallel capacitor to form its
resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal oscillations

In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the collector and the base of a transistor
amplifier. As far as the oscillatory voltage is concerned, the emitter is connected to a tapping point on the
tuned circuit coil.
The feedback part of the tuned LC tank circuit is taken from the centre tap of the inductor coil or even two
separate coils in series which are in parallel with a variable capacitor, C as shown.
The Hartley circuit is often referred to as a split-inductance oscillator because coil L is centre-tapped. In
effect, inductance L acts like two separate coils in very close proximity with the current flowing through coil
section XY induces a signal into coil section YZ below.
An Hartley Oscillator circuit can be made from any configuration that uses either a single tapped coil
(similar to an autotransformer) or a pair of series connected coils in parallel with a single capacitor as shown
below

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In this Hartley Oscillator circuit, the DC Collector current flows through part of the coil and for this reason
the circuit is said to be “Series-fed” with the frequency of oscillation of the Hartley Oscillator being given as.

The condition for Oscillations is given as

XI + X2 + X3 = 0.
𝑗
𝑋1 = − 𝜔𝐶 , 𝑋2 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 , 𝑋3 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿2

Therefore
𝑗
− + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿2 = 0
𝜔𝐶
1
= 𝜔𝐿1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿2
𝜔𝐶
1
𝜔=
√𝐶(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )
1 1
𝑓=
2𝜋 √𝐶(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )

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Example Problems

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3.8 Frequency and amplitude stability of Oscillators

3.8.1 Frequency Stability of Oscillators
In oscillators, the frequency of oscillations remains constant over a long interval of time. Frequency stability
is a measure of the degree to which the desired frequency is achieved. The closure will be the output to a
constant frequency if the frequency stability is better.
The oscillation frequency depends on various features of the circuit such as various components, supply
voltages, stray elements, characteristic parameters of active devices, etc.
Frequency instability or variations of the desired output frequency may be caused by variations in the
external circuit elements or by device characteristics. In transistor oscillators such as a Hartley
oscillator or Colpitts oscillators, the frequency of oscillations is not stable during long time operation.
This is because the capacitance existing at the base-collector junction in reverse biased condition is
dominated at high frequencies and hence it affects the capacitor in tank circuit.
Also, due to change in temperature, the values of frequency dominating components like transistor, inductor,
resistor, and capacitor also changes.
The variation of the frequency with temperature is given by
S wo T = (Δw / wr) (ΔT / Tr)
Where wr and Tr are the desired frequency and the operating temperature respectively. Δw and ΔT are
change in frequency and change in temperature respectively.
The frequency stability can be given as
Sw = dθ/dw
A small frequency change in a desired frequency introduces the phase shift which is indicated as dθ. Hence
the oscillator will be more stable if the circuit gives a larger value of dθ/dw.
The frequency stability can be improved by enclosing the oscillator circuit in a constant temperature chamber
and by using zener diodes in the circuit to maintain the constant voltage.
A loading effect is reduced by coupling the oscillator circuit to the load loosely, or with the use of a circuit
having a low output impedance and a high input impedance.
3.8.2 Amplitude Stability of Oscillators
The amplitude stability measures the amount by which the actual output amplitude varies from desired
output amplitude in an oscillator. With the increase in the gain of the amplifier, the amplitude of the
waveform is change.
The gain value is also changes due to the oscillator circuit components, and hence the amplitude. To keep the
gain constant, various gain control techniques are used so that amplitude stability is maintained.

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Another factor for variation of the amplitude is the supply voltage. The amplitude of the waveform changes
with change in the supply voltage. For maintain the good amplitude stability, voltage regulators are used.
3.8.3 Factors Affecting the Stability of Oscillator
The stability of the oscillator includes both amplitude and frequency stabilities which depends on various
factors. By considering the above discussed points in the listed form, we get following factors.
Operating Point
In case of transistorized oscillators, the changes in the device or transistor parameters (which are varied
depends on the operation on non-linear portion) affect the stability of oscillator. Since the transistor is
selected in such way that it operate in linear region of its characteristics.
Circuit Components
The values of circuit components like inductor, capacitor, and resistors are depend on the temperature. If the
values of these components varied, there will be drift in the frequency of oscillations.
Inter-Element Capacitances
A transistor consists of inter element capacitance, i.e., the collector to emitter capacitor. If the value of this
capacitor changes the oscillations frequency is also changing, hence the stability of the oscillator. This effect
can be neutralized by placing swamping capacitor across the offending elements.
Power Supply
The variation in the DC supply voltage affects the oscillator frequency. This can be avoided by using
regulated power supply.
Output Load
The Q-factor of the tank circuit depends on the output load and hence any change in load causes the change
in frequency of the oscillation. For tuned oscillators, the frequency stability is proportional to the Q of a
tuned circuit.
3.9 Crystal Oscillator
Some of the factors that affect the frequency stability of an oscillator generally include: variations in
temperature, variations in the load, as well as changes to its DC power supply voltage to name a few
Frequency stability of the output signal can be greatly improved by the proper selection of the components
used for the resonant feedback circuit, including the amplifier. But there is a limit to the stability that can be
obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits.

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Quartz Crystal Oscillator

To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the frequency
determining device to produce another type of oscillator circuit known generally as a Quartz Crystal
Oscillator.
When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of quartz crystal, it begins to change shape producing
a characteristic known as the Piezo-electric effect. This Piezo-electric Effect is the property of a crystal by
which an electrical charge produces a mechanical force by changing the shape of the crystal and vice versa, a
mechanical force applied to the crystal produces an electrical charge.
Then, piezo-electric devices can be classed as Transducers as they convert energy of one kind into energy of
another (electrical to mechanical or mechanical to electrical). This piezo-electric effect produces mechanical
vibrations or oscillations which can be used to replace the standard LC tank circuit in the previous
oscillators.
There are many different types of crystal substances that can be used as oscillators with the most important
of these for electronic circuits being the quartz minerals, due in part to their greater mechanical strength.
The quartz crystal used in a Quartz Crystal Oscillator is a very small, thin piece or wafer of cut quartz with
the two parallel surfaces metallised to make the required electrical connections. The physical size and
thickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly controlled since it affects the final or fundamental frequency
of oscillations. The fundamental frequency is generally called the crystals “characteristic frequency”.
Once cut and shaped, the crystal cannot be used at any other frequency. In other words, its size and shape
determines its fundamental oscillation frequency.
The crystals characteristic or characteristic frequency is inversely proportional to its physical thickness
between the two metallised surfaces. A mechanically vibrating crystal can be represented by an equivalent
electrical circuit consisting of low resistance R, a large inductance L and small capacitance C as shown
below.
Quartz Crystal Equivalent Model

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The equivalent electrical circuit for the quartz crystal shows a series RLC circuit, which represents the
mechanical vibrations of the crystal, in parallel with a capacitance, Cp which represents the electrical
connections to the crystal. Quartz crystal oscillators tend to operate towards their “series resonance”.
The equivalent impedance of the crystal has a series resonance where Cs resonates with inductance, Ls at the
crystals operating frequency. This frequency is called the crystals series frequency, ƒs. As well as this series
frequency, there is a second frequency point established as a result of the parallel resonance created
when Ls and Cs resonates with the parallel capacitor Cp as shown.
Crystal Impedance against Frequency

The slope of the crystals impedance above shows that as the frequency increases across its terminals. At a
particular frequency, the interaction of between the series capacitor Cs and the inductor Ls creates a series
resonance circuit reducing the crystals impedance to a minimum and equal to Rs. This frequency point is
called the crystals series resonant frequency ƒs and below ƒs the crystal is capacitive.
As the frequency increases above this series resonance point, the crystal behaves like an inductor until the
frequency reaches its parallel resonant frequency ƒp. At this frequency point the interaction between the
series inductor, Ls and parallel capacitor, Cp creates a parallel tuned LC tank circuit and as such the
impedance across the crystal reaches its maximum value.
Then we can see that a quartz crystal is a combination of a series and parallel tuned resonance circuits,
oscillating at two different frequencies with the very small difference between the two depending upon the
cut of the crystal. Also, since the crystal can operate at either its series or parallel resonance frequencies, a
crystal oscillator circuit needs to be tuned to one or the other frequency as you cannot use both together.
So depending upon the circuit characteristics, a quartz crystal can act as either a capacitor, an inductor, a
series resonance circuit or as a parallel resonance circuit and to demonstrate this more clearly, we can also
plot the crystals reactance against frequency as shown.

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The slope of the reactance against frequency above, shows that the series reactance at frequency ƒs is
inversely proportional to Cs because below ƒs and above ƒp the crystal appears capacitive. Between
frequencies ƒs and ƒp, the crystal appears inductive as the two parallel capacitances cancel out.
Then the formula for the crystals series resonance frequency, ƒs is given as:
Series Resonant Frequency

The parallel resonance frequency, ƒp occurs when the reactance of the series LC leg equals the reactance of
the parallel capacitor, Cp and is given as:
Parallel Resonant Frequency

Q factor

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Colpitts Quartz Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillator circuits are generally constructed using bipolar transistors or FETs. This is because
although operational amplifiers can be used in many different low frequency (≤100kHz) oscillator circuits,
operational amplifiers just do not have the bandwidth to operate successfully at the higher frequencies suited
to crystals above 1MHz.
The design of a Crystal Oscillator is very similar to the design of the Colpitts Oscillator we looked at in the
previous tutorial, except that the LC tank circuit that provides the feedback oscillations has been replaced by
a quartz crystal as shown below.
Colpitts Crystal Oscillator

This type of Crystal Oscillators are designed around a common collector (emitter-follower) amplifier.
The R1 and R2 resistor network sets the DC bias level on the Base while emitter resistor RE sets the output
voltage level. Resistor R2 is set as large as possible to prevent loading to the parallel connected crystal.
The transistor, a 2N4265 is a general purpose NPN transistor connected in a common collector configuration
and is capable of operating at switching speeds in excess of 100Mhz, well above the crystals fundamental
frequency which can be between about 1MHz and 5MHz.
The circuit diagram above of the Colpitts Crystal Oscillator circuit shows that capacitors, C1 and C2 shunt
the output of the transistor which reduces the feedback signal. Therefore, the gain of the transistor limits the
maximum values of C1 and C2. The output amplitude should be kept low in order to avoid excessive power
dissipation in the crystal otherwise could destroy itself by excessive vibration.
Advantages of Crystal oscillator:
The crystal oscillator has very low frequency drift due to change in temperature and other parameters.
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The crystal oscillator Q is very high.

It has Automatic amplitude control.
It has very high frequency stability.
The crystal oscillator is possible to obtain very high precise and stable frequency of oscillators.
It has High frequency of operation.
Disadvantages of Crystal oscillator:
Crystals of low fundamental frequencies are not easily available.
These are suitable for high frequency application.
Applications of Crystal oscillator:
The crystal oscillators are used in radio and TV transmitters.
It is used as a crystal clock in microprocessors.
It is used in the frequency synthesizers.
It is used in special types of receivers.

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Example Problems

Short Answer Questions

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1. State Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation. What will happen to the oscillation if the
magnitude of the loop gain is greater than unity
Barkhausen’s Criteria for Oscillation
3. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier 𝐴 and the feedback factor
𝛽 is unity, i.e., |𝛽𝐴| =1.
4. The total phase shift around the loop is 0° or 360°.
The voltage derived from the output using feedback network Vf must be in phase with Vi, so
Vf is sufficient to act as 𝑉𝑖 when |𝛽𝐴|=1 and the phase of Vf is same as that of Vi , i.e., feedback
network should introduce 180° phase shift in addition to the 180° phase shift introduced by the
inverting amplifier. So total phase shift around the loop is 360°
if |𝛽𝐴|>1, the oscillations are of growing type
2. Compare Frequency stability of crystal oscillator, RC and LC oscillators

LC Oscillators Crystal Oscillators

Frequency of oscillations is dependent on Frequency. of oscillations depends on the

values of L and C dimensions of crystal.

These are preferred at high frequency Preferred at high frequency.

Hartley, Colpitt’s and Clapp Miller and pierce crystal

Poor frequency. stability except for the Clapp Very high and frequency. stability.
oscillator

Used in radio, TV as high frequency. sources, Crystal clock, frequency. synthesizer’s special type
frequency. synthesizers. receivers are the applications.

3. Explain why RC Phase shift oscillators are not used at high frequencies
At high frequencies, resistors look like inductors or capacitors so the equations that govern
oscillation in RC oscillators no longer apply. In other words, because of those parasitic components,
it gets more and more difficult to make a stable RC oscillator as frequencies go up. At some point it
becomes easier and more stable to use other types of oscillators.

Long Answer Questions

4. What are the factors that affect the frequency stability of an oscillator? How frequency stability can
be improved in oscillators
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Factors Affecting the Stability of Oscillator

The stability of the oscillator includes both amplitude and frequency stabilities which depends on
various factors. By considering the above discussed points in the listed form, we get following
factors.
Operating Point
In case of transistorized oscillators, the changes in the device or transistor parameters (which are
varied depends on the operation on non-linear portion) affect the stability of oscillator. Since the
transistor is selected in such way that it operate in linear region of its characteristics.
Circuit Components
The values of circuit components like inductor, capacitor, and resistors are depend on the
temperature. If the values of these components varied, there will be drift in the frequency of
oscillations.
Inter-Element Capacitances
A transistor consists of inter element capacitance, i.e., the collector to emitter capacitor. If the
value of this capacitor changes the oscillations frequency is also changing, hence the stability of
the oscillator. This effect can be neutralized by placing swamping capacitor across the offending
elements.
Power Supply
The variation in the DC supply voltage affects the oscillator frequency. This can be avoided by
using regulated power supply.
Output Load
The Q-factor of the tank circuit depends on the output load and hence any change in load causes
the change in frequency of the oscillation. For tuned oscillators, the frequency stability is
proportional to the Q of a tuned circuit.
5. Explain the principle of operation of the wein bridge oscillator Derive an expression for frequency of
oscillations of a wien bridge oscillator using transistor
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective form
of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier
circuit that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune
making it a popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of the output signal
is considerably different from the previous phase shift RC Oscillator.

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit connected
with a parallel RC of the same component values producing a phase delay or phase advance
circuit depending upon the frequency. At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o
Wien Bridge Oscillator operation

In the bridge circuit R1 in series with C1, R2 in parallel with C2, and R3, R4 form the four arms.
This bridge circuit can be used as feedback network for an oscillator, provided that the phase shift
through the amplifier is zero. This requisite condition is achieved by using a two-stage amplifier.
In this arrangement the output of the second stage is supplied back to the feedback network and
the voltage across the parallel combination C2 R2 is fed to the input of the first stage. Transistor
Q1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier whereas the transistor Q2 as an inverter to cause a phase
shift of 180°. Resistors R3 and R4 are used to stabilize the amplitude of the output.
The circuit is set in oscillation by any random change in base current of transistor Q1(may be due
to noise inherent in the transistor or variation in voltage of dc supply.) This variation in base
current is amplified in collector circuit of transistor Q1 but with a phase-shift of 180°. the output
of transistor Q1 is fed to the base of second transistor Q2 through capacitor C4. Now a still further
amplified and twice phase-reversed signal appears at the collector of the transistor Q2. Having
been inverted twice, the output signal will be in phase with the signal input to the base of
transistor Q1 A part of the output signal at transistor Q2 is feedback to the input points of the
bridge circuit (point A-C). The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks. The positive feedback
is through R1 C1 R2, C2 to transistor Q1 and the negative feedback is through the voltage divider
(R3 and R4) to the input of transistor Q1. which is used to stabilize the amplitude of the output.
The continuous frequency variation in this oscillator can be had by varying the two capacitors
C1 and C2 simultaneously. We can change the frequency range of the oscillator by switching into
the circuit different values of resistors R1 and R2.
the Frequency Selection Network is given as

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Z1
R1 C1 Z2

Vi C2 R2 Vo

1 1
Let X C1 = and XC2 =
C1 C 2

Z1 = R1 − jX C1

−1
1 1  − jR2 X C 2
Z2 =  +  =
 R2 − jX C 2  R2 − jX C 2

Vo Z2 (− jR2 X C 2 / R2 − jX C 2 )
= = =
Vi Z1 + Z 2 ( R1 − jX C1 ) + (− jR2 X C 2 / R2 − jX C 2 )

− jR2 X C 2
=
( R1 − jX C1 )( R2 − jX C 2 ) − jR2 X C 2

 can be rewritten as:

R2 X C 2
=
R1 X C 2 + R2 X C1 + R2 X C 2 + j ( R1 R2 − X C1 X C 2 )

For Barkhausen Criterion, imaginary part = 0, i.e.,

R1 R2 − X C1 X C 2 = 0

1 1
or R1 R2 =
C1 C2
  = 1 / R1 R2C1C2

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Let R1=R2=R and C1= C2=C and by setting Imaginary part = 0

We get 1
=
RC
6. Mention the features and advantages of the crystal oscillator
Advantages of Crystal oscillator:
The crystal oscillator has very low frequency drift due to change in temperature and other parameters.
• The crystal oscillator Q is very high.
• It has Automatic amplitude control.
• It has very high frequency stability.
• The crystal oscillator is possible to obtain very high precise and stable frequency of
oscillators.
• It has High frequency of operation.
7. Starting from the description of a generalized Oscillator, derive the expression for frequency of
Oscillation in a Colpitts Oscillator

The generalized circuit of an LC circuit is given as

−
Av Ro
~

+
2 Z1 Z2 1

Z3
Zp

➢ The frequency selection network (Z1, Z2 and Z3) provides a phase shift of 1800
➢ The amplifier provides an addition shift of 1800

Av Ro
~

+ V f = Vo =
Z1
Vo
Z1 + Z 3
Vf Z1 Z2 Vo
Z p = Z 2 //( Z1 + Z 3 )
Z3
Zp Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
=
For the equivalent circuit from the output Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Ro Io
+
+ Zp Vo
− −AvVi
−

− AvVi V V − Av Z p
= o or o =
Ro + Z p Z p Vi Ro + Z p

Therefore, the amplifier gain is obtained,

Vo − Av Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
A= =
Vi Ro ( Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 ) + Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
The loop gain,
− Av Z1Z 2
A =
Ro ( Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 ) + Z 2 ( Z1 + Z 3 )
If the impedance are all pure reactances, i.e.,
Z1 = jX 1 , Z 2 = jX 2 and Z 3 = jX 3
The loop gain becomes,
Av X 1 X 2
A =
jRo ( X 1 + X 2 + X 3 ) − X 2 ( X 1 + X 3 )

The imaginary part = 0 only when X1+ X2+ X3=0

𝑗 𝑗
𝑋1 = − 𝜔𝐶 , 𝑋2 = − 𝜔𝐶 , 𝑋2 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿
1 2

Therefore

𝑗 𝑗
− − + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 0
𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶2

1 1
𝜔𝐿 = +
𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶2

𝜔𝐶1 + 𝜔𝐶2
𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶𝜔𝐶21

1 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝜔= √( )
√𝐿 𝐶𝐶21

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

1 1 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝑓= √( )
2𝜋 √𝐿 𝐶𝐶21

8. Draw the circuit diagram of RC-Phase shift oscillator using BJT and derive the expressions for
frequency of oscillations and condition on gain

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Problems

1. In a transistorized Hartley oscillator, the two inductances are 2mH and 20μH while the frequency is
to be changed from 950KHZ to 2050KHZ. Calculate the range over which the capacitor is to be
varied

2. A Colpitts oscillator is designed with C1 = 100pF and C2=7500pF. Find the range of inductance
values if the frequency of oscillations vary between 950 and 2050KHz

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Objective Questions
1. An oscillator converts …………….
1. ac. power into d.c. power
2. dc. power into a.c. power
3. mechanical power into a.c. power
4. a.c. power into mechanical power
Answer: 2
2. In an LC transistor oscillator, the active device is ……………
1. LC tank circuit
2. Biasing circuit
3. Transistor
4. Resister
Answer: 3
3. In an LC circuit, when the capacitor is maximum, the inductor energy is …….
1. Minimum
2. Maximum
3. Half-way between maximum and minimum
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
4. In an LC oscillator, the frequency of oscillator is ……………. L or C.
1. Proportional to square of
2. Directly proportional to
3. Independent of the values of
4. Inversely proportional to square root of
Answer: 4
5. An oscillator produces……………. oscillations
1. Damped
2. Undamped
3. Modulated
4. Sustained
Answer: 4
6. An oscillator employs ……………… feedback
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Neither positive nor negative
4. Data insufficient
Answer: 1
7. An LC oscillator cannot be used to produce ………………. frequencies
1. High
2. Audio
3. Very low
4. Very high
Answer: 3
8. Hartley oscillator is commonly used in ………………
1. Radio receivers
2. Radio transmitters
3. TV receivers
4. TV transmitters

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Answer: 1
9. In a phase shift oscillator, we use …………. RC sections
1. Two
2. Three
3. Four
4. one
Answer: 2
10. In a phase shift oscillator, the frequency determining elements are …………
1. L and C
2. R, L and C
3. R and C
4. None of the above
Answer: 3
11. A Wien bridge oscillator uses ……………. feedback
1. Only positive
2. Only negative
3. Both positive and negative
4. Neither positive nor negative
Answer: 3
12. The piezoelectric effect in a crystal is ……………
1. A voltage developed because of mechanical stress
2. A change in resistance because of temperature
3. A change in frequency because of temperature
4. A change in capacitance because of temperature
Answer: 1
13. If the crystal frequency changes with temperature, we say that crystal has …………. temperature
coefficient
1. Positive
2. Zero
3. Negative
4. Neutral
Answer: 1
14. The crystal oscillator frequency is very stable due to ………………. of the crystal
1. Rigidity
2. Vibrations
3. Low Q
4. High Q
Answer: 4
15. The application where one would most likely find a crystal oscillator is …………….
1. Radio receiver
2. Radio transmitter
3. AF sweep generator
4. RF Remote
Answer : 2
16. An oscillator differs from an amplifier because it ………
1. Has more gain
2. Requires no input signal
3. Requires no d.c. supply

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4. Always has the same input

Answer: 2
17. One condition for oscillation is ………….
1. A phase shift around the feedback loop of 180o
2. A gain around the feedback loop of one-third
3. A phase shift around the feedback loop of 0o
4. A gain around the feedback loop of less than 1
Answer: 3
18. A second condition for oscillations is ……………….
1. A gain of 1 around the feedback loop
2. No gain around the feedback loop
3. The attention of the feedback circuit must be one-third
4. The feedback circuit must be capacitive
Answer: 1
19. In a certain oscillator Av = 50. The attention of the feedback circuit must be …………
1. 1
2. 01
3. 10
4. 02
Answer: 4
20. For an oscillator to properly start, the gain around the feedback loop must initially be
1. 1
2. Greater than 1
3. Less than 1
4. Equal to attenuation of feedback circuit
Answer: 2
21. In a Wien-bridge oscillator, if the resistances in the positive feedback circuit are decreased, the
frequency……….
1. Remains the same
2. Decreases
3. Increases
4. Insufficient data
Answer: 3
22. In Colpitt’s oscillator, feedback is obtained …………….
1. By magnetic induction
2. By a tickler coil
3. From the centre of split capacitors
4. Tank circuit
Answer: 3
23. The Q of the crystal is of the order of …………
1. 100
2. 1000
3. 50
4. More than 10,000
Answer: 4
24. Quartz crystal is most commonly used in crystal oscillators because ………….
1. It has superior electrical properties
2. It is easily available

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3. It is quite inexpensive
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
25. …………. is a fixed frequency oscillator
1. Phase-shift oscillator
2. Hartely-oscillator
3. Colpitt’s oscillator
4. Crystal oscillator
Answer: 4
26. In an LC oscillator, if the value of L is increased four times, the frequency of oscillations is
…………
1. Increased 2 times
2. Decreased 4 times
3. Increased 4 times
4. Decreased 2 times
Answer: 4
27. An important limitation of a crystal oscillator is ……………
1. Its low output
2. Its high Q
3. Less availability of quartz crystal
4. Its high output
Answer: 1
28. The signal generator generally used in the laboratories is …………. oscillator
1. Wien-bridge
2. Hartely
3. Crystal
4. Phase shift
Answer: 1
29. Which of the following is not an example of non-sinusoidal oscillator?

1. Sawtooth Generators
2. Blocking oscillators
3. Multivibrator
4. Crystal oscillators
Answer: 1
30. Which of the following is not an LC oscillator?
1. Hartley Oscillator
2. Colpitts oscillator
3. Crystal oscillator
4. Clapp oscillator
Answer: 3
31. The sinusoidal oscillator is also called _________
1. LC Oscillator
2. Harmonic oscillator
3. Crystal oscillator
4. RC oscillator
Answer: 2
32. Which type of oscillators is used in timing elements?

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1. RC Oscillator
2. LC oscillator
3. Crystal oscillator
4. Wein bridge oscillator
Answer: 3

33. Which of the following oscillator is not using a feedback network for its oscillation?
1. LC Oscillator
2. RC oscillator
3. Crystal oscillator
4. Relaxation oscillator
Answer: 4
34. Low frequency oscillators have a frequency range of ___________
1. 20 Hz-20K Hz
2. 20 Hz -100k Hz
3. 1 Hz -20k Hz
4. 50 Hz -100k Hz
Answer: 1
35. High frequency oscillators have a frequency range of ___________
1. 300K Hz-2G Hz
2. 100k Hz-500k Hz
3. 8k Hz-800K Hz
4. 4K Hz-1G Hz
Answer: 1
36. Which of the following oscillator cannot be used in low frequency oscillations?

1. Wein bridge Oscillator

2. RC oscillator
3. Colpitts oscillator
4. Relaxation oscillator
Answer: 3
37. Which of the following oscillator is will give the most stable output oscillation frequency?
1. Wein bridge Oscillator
2. Clapp oscillator
3. Colpitts oscillator
4. Crystal oscillator
Answer: 4
38. Relaxation oscillators are also known as ___________
1. Multivibrator
2. Phase shift oscillators
3. Blocking oscillators
4. Saw tooth generator
Answer: 1

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