UNIT IV

Large Signal Amplifiers

and Tuned Amplifiers
 Power Amplifier
After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, it has several voltage amplifications
done, after which the power amplification of the amplified signal is done just before the loud
speaker stage. This is clearly shown in the below figure.

While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power amplifier raises
the power level of the signal. Besides raising the power level, it can also be said that a power
amplifier is a device which converts DC power to AC power and whose action is controlled by
the input signal.
The DC power is distributed according to the relation,
DC power input = AC power output + losses
Power Transistor
For such Power amplification, a normal transistor would not do. A transistor that is manufactured
to suit the purpose of power amplification is called as a Power transistor.
A Power transistor differs from the other transistors, in the following factors.
• It is larger in size, in order to handle large powers.
• The collector region of the transistor is made large and a heat sink is placed at the
collector-base junction in order to minimize heat generated.
• The emitter and base regions of a power transistor are heavily doped.
• Due to the low input resistance, it requires low input power.
Hence there is a lot of difference in voltage amplification and power amplification. So, let us
now try to get into the details to understand the differences between a voltage amplifier and
a power amplifier.
Difference between Voltage and Power Amplifiers
Voltage Amplifier
The function of a voltage amplifier is to raise the voltage level of the signal. A voltage amplifier
is designed to achieve maximum voltage amplification.
The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by
𝑅𝑐
𝐴𝑣 = 𝛽 ( )
𝑅𝑖𝑛
The characteristics of a voltage amplifier are as follows −
 • The base of the transistor should be thin and hence the value of β should be less than
100.
• The resistance of the input resistor Rin should be low when compared to collector load
RC.
• The collector load RC should be relatively high. To permit high collector load, the voltage
amplifiers are always operated at low collector current.
• The voltage amplifiers are used for small signal voltages.
Power Amplifier
The function of a power amplifier is to raise the power level of input signal. It is required to
deliver a large amount of power and has to handle large current.
The characteristics of a power amplifier are as follows −
• The base of transistor is made thicken to handle large currents. The value of β being (β
> 100) high.
• The size of the transistor is made larger, in order to dissipate more heat, which is
produced during transistor operation.
• Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.
• Collector resistance is made low.
The comparison between voltage and power amplifiers is given below in a tabular form.

Basis for Comparison Voltage Amplifier Power Amplifier

Basic It raises the voltage level. It provides increase in the power level.

Known as Small signal amplifier Large signal amplifier

Magnitude of input signal Small Comparatively large

Type of coupling used RC coupling Transformer coupling

Base region The base region of transistor is thin. The base of transistor is comparatively thicker.

Value of IC Low, approximately around 1 mA. Quite high, nearly 100 mA.

Achieved ac power Low Very high

Value of β Low (5 to 20) High (100)

Physical size of transistor Small Generally large

Heat dissipation Less More

Load impedance High (4 kΩ to 10 kΩ) Low (5 to 20 Ω)

Power Amplifier Classification
The Power amplifiers amplify the power level of the signal. This amplification is done in the
last stage in audio applications. The applications related to radio frequencies employ radio
power amplifiers. But the operating point of a transistor, plays a very important role in
determining the efficiency of the amplifier. The main classification is done based on this mode
of operation.
The classification is done based on their frequencies and also based on their mode of operation.
Classification Based on Frequencies
Power amplifiers are divided into two categories, based on the frequencies they handle. They
are as follows.
• Audio Power Amplifiers − The audio power amplifiers raise the power level of signals
that have audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20 KHz). They are also known as Small
signal power amplifiers.
• Radio Power Amplifiers − Radio Power Amplifiers or tuned power amplifiers raise the
power level of signals that have radio frequency range (3 KHz to 300 GHz). They are
also known as large signal power amplifiers.
Classification Based on Mode of Operation (Biasing condition)
On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle during which collector
current flows, the power amplifiers may be classified as follows.
• Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows at all times during the full
cycle (3600) of input signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.

• Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during the positive
half cycle (1800) of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power
amplifier.
 • Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of
the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C the collector current flows
power amplifier.

Another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the class A and class B amplifiers
so as to utilize the advantages of both and in this the collector current flows between 1800 and
3600
Before going into the details of these amplifiers, let us have a look at the important terms that
have to be considered to determine the efficiency of an amplifier.
Terms Considering Performance
The primary objective of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum output power. In order to
achieve this, the important factors to be considered are collector efficiency, power dissipation
capability and distortion. Let us go through them in detail.
1. Collector Efficiency
This explains how well an amplifier converts DC power to AC power. When the DC supply is
given by the battery but no AC signal input is given, the collector output at such a condition is
observed as collector efficiency.
The collector efficiency is defined as
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐚.𝐜𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭
η=
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐝.𝐜𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫
For example, if the battery supplies 15W and AC output power is 3W. Then the transistor
efficiency will be 20%.
The main aim of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum collector efficiency. Hence the higher
the value of collector efficiency, the efficient the amplifier will be.
2. Power Dissipation Capacity
Every transistor gets heated up during its operation. As a power transistor handles large
currents, it gets more heated up. This heat increases the temperature of the transistor, which
alters the operating point of the transistor.
So, in order to maintain the operating point stability, the temperature of the transistor has to
be kept in permissible limits. For this, the heat produced has to be dissipated. Such a capacity
is called as Power dissipation capability.
Power dissipation capability can be defined as the ability of a power transistor to
dissipate the heat developed in it. Metal cases called heat sinks are used in order to
dissipate the heat produced in power transistors.
3. Distortion
A transistor is a non-linear device. When compared with the input, there occur few variations
in the output. In voltage amplifiers, this problem is not pre-dominant as small currents are used.
But in power amplifiers, as large currents are in use, the problem of distortion certainly arises.
Distortion is defined as the change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of the
amplifier. An amplifier that has lesser distortion, produces a better output and hence
considered efficient.
4.1 Class A power amplifier
We have already come across the details of transistor biasing, which is very important for the
operation of a transistor as an amplifier. Hence to achieve faithful amplification, the biasing
of the transistor has to be done such that the amplifier operates over the linear region.
A Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current flows for the entire cycle of the
AC input supply. Hence the complete signal present at the input is amplified at the output.
4..1.1 Series fed Class A power amplifier
A simple Class A power amplifier that supplies power to pure resistive load is given as
Assuming input signal iB is sinusoidal the output current and voltage will be sinusoidal

The output characteristics with operating point Q is shown in the figure above. Here (IC) and
(VC) represent no signal collector current and voltage between collector and emitter
respectively. When signal is applied, the Q-point shifts to 1 and 2. The output current increases
to (Ic)max and decreases to (Ic)min. Similarly, the collector-emitter voltage increases to (VC)max and
decreases to (VC)min.
The power output is given by
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐶 𝑋 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶2 𝑋 𝑅𝐿 where VC and IC are the RMS values of the output voltage and
currents
Collector Efficiency
The collector efficiency of the transistor is defined as
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐚. 𝐜 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 (𝑃𝑜 )𝑎𝑐
(𝜂)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝. 𝐜 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐢 𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝑃𝑡𝑟 )𝑑𝑐

Expression for overall efficiency

(𝑃𝑜 )𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
1 (𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑖𝑛
= [ ]𝑋 [ ]
√2 2 √2 2
[(𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ]𝑋[(𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ]
8
There fore
[(𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ]𝑋[(𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ]
(𝜂)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
8𝑋𝑉𝐶𝐶 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑄
Advantages of Class A Amplifiers with series fed
The advantages of Class A power amplifier are as follows −
• The current flows for complete input cycle
• It can amplify small signals
• The output is same as input
• No distortion is present
Disadvantages of Class A Amplifiers
The advantages of Class A power amplifier are as follows −
• Low power output
• Low collector efficiency
Transformer coupled Class A power amplifier
In series fed amplifier the load resistor is connected directly in the output circuit. Hence, the
quiescent current pass through this resister resulting in considerable waste of power as it is does
not contribute to a.c signal at the output, thereby decreasing the efficiency of amplifier. This
problem can be solved by using a suitable transformer for coupling the load to the amplifier

Since the load is not directly connected to the collector terminal, the dc collector current does
not pass through it. In ideal transformer, the resistance of primary winding is zero. Hence, dc
power loss in the load is zero. Hence the transformer substitutes the dc load with an ac load.
To transfer a significant amount of power to a practical load, it is necessary to use an output
matching transformer. The secondary load RL when reflected into primary becomes R’L= RL/n2,
where n = N2/N1, where N1 is number of primary turns and N2 is number of secondary turns.
By taking N2 lesser than N1,n can be made much less than one and R’L is much bigger than RL
Transformer Action
The transformer used in the collector circuit is for impedance matching. RL is the load connected
in the secondary of a transformer. RL’ is the reflected load in the primary of the transformer.
The number of turns in the primary are n1 and the secondary are n2. Let V1 and V2 be the
primary and secondary voltages and I1 and I2 be the primary and secondary currents
respectively. The below figure shows the transformer clearly.
We know that
𝑉1 𝑛1 𝐼1 𝑛1
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑉2 𝑛2 𝐼2 𝑛2
Or
𝑛1 𝑛1
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = 𝐼2
𝑛2 𝑛2
Hence
𝑉1 𝑛1 2 𝑉2
= ( )
𝐼1 𝑛2 𝐼2
But V1/I1 = RL’ = effective input resistance
And V2/I2 = RL = effective output resistance
Therefore,
𝑛1 2
𝑅𝐿′ =( ) 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑛2 𝑅𝐿
𝑛2
Where
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝑛1
𝑛= =
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝑛2
A power amplifier may be matched by taking proper turn ratio in step down transformer.
Circuit Operation
If the peak value of the collector current due to signal is equal to zero signal collector current,
then the maximum a.c. power output is obtained. So, in order to achieve complete amplification,
the operating point should lie at the center of the load line.
The operating point obviously varies when the signal is applied. The collector voltage varies in
opposite phase to the collector current. The variation of collector voltage appears across the
primary of the transformer.
Circuit Analysis
The power loss in the primary is assumed to be negligible, as its resistance is very small.
The input power under dc condition will be
(𝑃𝑖𝑛 )𝑑𝑐 = (𝑃𝑡𝑟 )𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑄
Under maximum capacity of class A amplifier, voltage swings from (Vce)max to zero and current
from (Ic)max to zero.
Hence
1 (𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 (𝑉𝑐𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ] == [ ]= =
√2 2 √2 2 2√2 √2
1 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 2(𝐼𝐶 )𝑄 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑄
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ] == [ ]= =
√2 2 √2 2 2√2 √2

Therefore,
𝑉𝐶𝐶 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑄 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑋(𝐼𝐶 )𝑄
(𝑃𝑂 )𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑋 =
√2 √2 2
Therefore,
(𝑃 )
Collector Efficiency = (𝑃 𝑂 )𝑎𝑐
𝑡𝑟 𝑑𝑐

Or,
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑋(𝐼𝐶 )𝑄 1
(𝜂)𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 50%
2𝑋𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑋(𝐼𝐶 )𝑄 2
The efficiency of a class A power amplifier is nearly than 30% whereas it has got improved to
50% by using the transformer coupled class A power amplifier.
Advantages
The advantages of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
• No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors.
• Excellent impedance matching is achieved.
• Gain is high.
• DC isolation is provided.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
• Low frequency signals are less amplified comparatively.
• Hum noise is introduced by transformers.
• Transformers are bulky and costly.
• Poor frequency response.
Applications
The applications of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
• This circuit is where impedance matching is the main criterion.
• These are used as driver amplifiers and sometimes as output amplifiers.
Class B Power Amplifier
When the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of the input signal, the
power amplifier is known as class B power amplifier.
Class B Operation
The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero signal condition,
there will be no collector current. The operating point is selected to be at collector cut off
voltage. So, when the signal is applied, only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.
The figure below shows the input and output waveforms during class B operation.

When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the positive half cycle of the input
and hence the collector current flows. But during the negative half cycle of the input, the circuit
is reverse biased and the collector current will be absent. Hence only the positive half cycle is
amplified at the output.
As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal distortion will be high. Also, when
the applied signal increases, the power dissipation will be more. But when compared to class
A power amplifier, the output efficiency is increased.
Well, in order to minimize the disadvantages and achieve low distortion, high efficiency and
high output power, the push-pull configuration is used in this class B amplifier.
Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only one-half cycle
of the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is not completely utilized. In
order to compensate these problems, the push-pull configuration is introduced in class B
amplifier.
Construction
The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical transistors T1 and
T2 whose bases are connected to the secondary of the center-tapped input transformer Tr1. The
emitters are shorted and the collectors are given the VCC supply through the primary of the
output transformer Tr2.
The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier is same as that of class A push-pull
amplifier except that the transistors are biased at cut off, instead of using the biasing resistors.
The figure below gives the detailing of the construction of a push-pull class B power amplifier.

The circuit operation of class B push pull amplifier is detailed below.

Operation
The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier consists of the transformers both are center-tapped.
When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors T1 and T2 are in cut off condition and
hence no collector currents flow. As no current is drawn from VCC, no power is wasted.
When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer Tr1 which splits the signal into
two signals that are 180o out of phase with each other. These two signals are given to the two
identical transistors T1 and T2. For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor T1 becomes
positive and collector current flows. At the same time, the transistor T2 has negative half cycle,
which throws the transistor T2 into cutoff condition and hence no collector current flows. The
waveform is produced as shown in the following figure.

For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the transistor T2 gets into
conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts
alternately. The output transformer Tr3 serves to join the two currents producing an almost
undistorted output waveform.
Power Efficiency of Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
The current in each transistor is the average value of half sine loop.
For half sine loop, Idc is given by
(𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
Therefore,
(𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝑃𝑖𝑛 )𝑑𝑐 = 2𝑋 [ 𝑋𝑉𝐶𝐶 ]
𝜋

Here factor 2 is introduced as there are two transistors in push-pull amplifier.

R.M.S. value of collector current = (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⁄√2
R.M.S. value of output voltage = = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ⁄√2
Under ideal conditions of maximum power
Therefore,
(𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝐶𝐶 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 𝑉𝐶𝐶
(𝑃𝑂 )𝑎𝑐 = 𝑋 =
√2 √2 2
Now overall maximum efficiency
(𝑃𝑂 )𝑎𝑐 (𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝜋 𝜋
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = 𝑋 = = 0.785
(𝑃𝑖𝑛 )𝑑𝑐 2 2(𝐼𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑋 𝑉𝐶𝐶 4
= 78.5%

The collector efficiency would be the same.

Hence the class B push-pull amplifier improves the efficiency than the class A push-pull amplifier.
Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier
The push pull amplifier which was just discussed improves efficiency but the usage of center-
tapped transformers makes the circuit bulky, heavy and costly. To make the circuit simple and
to improve the efficiency, the transistors used can be complemented, as shown in the following
circuit diagram.
The above circuit employs a NPN transistor and a PNP transistor connected in push pull
configuration. When the input signal is applied, during the positive half cycle of the input signal,
the NPN transistor conducts and the PNP transistor cuts off. During the negative half cycle, the
NPN transistor cuts off and the PNP transistor conducts.
In this way, the NPN transistor amplifies during positive half cycle of the input, while PNP
transistor amplifies during negative half cycle of the input. As the transistors are both
complement to each other, yet act symmetrically while being connected in push pull
configuration of class B, this circuit is termed as Complementary symmetry push pull class B
amplifier.
Advantages
The advantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.
• As there is no need of center tapped transformers, the weight and cost are reduced.
• Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.
• It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (NPN and PNP) that have similar characteristics.
• We require both positive and negative supply voltages.
Crossover distortion
The output of class B encounters with Cross-over Distortion
In the push-pull configuration, the two identical transistors get into conduction, one after the
other and the output produced will be the combination of both.
When the signal changes or crosses over from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage
point, it produces an amount of distortion to the output wave shape. For a transistor in order to
conduct, the base emitter junction should cross 0.7v, the cut off voltage. The time taken for a
transistor to get ON from OFF or to get OFF from ON state is called the transition period.
At the zero voltage point, the transition period of switching over the transistors from one to the
other, has its effect which leads to the instances where both the transistors are OFF at a time.
Such instances can be called as Flat spot or Dead band on the output wave shape.

The above figure clearly shows the cross over distortion which is prominent in the output
waveform. This is the main disadvantage. This cross over distortion effect also reduces the
overall peak to peak value of the output waveform which in turn reduces the maximum power
output. This can be more clearly understood through the non-linear characteristic of the
waveform as shown below.

It is understood that this cross-over distortion is less pronounced for large input signals, where
as it causes severe disturbance for small input signals. This cross over distortion can be
eliminated if the conduction of the amplifier is more than one half cycle, so that both the
transistors won’t be OFF at the same time.
This idea leads to the invention of class AB amplifier, which is the combination of both class A
and class B amplifiers, as discussed below.
Class AB Power Amplifier
As the name implies, class AB is a combination of class A and class B type of amplifiers. would
have all the advantages of both class A and class B amplifier without their inefficiencies. As
class A has the problem of low efficiency and class B has distortion problem, this class AB is
emerged to eliminate these two problems, by utilizing the advantages of both the classes.
The cross over distortion is the problem that occurs when both the transistors are OFF at the
same instant, during the transition period. In order to eliminate this, the condition has to be
chosen for more than one half cycle. Hence, the other transistor gets into conduction, before the
operating transistor switches to cut off state. This is achieved only by using class AB
configuration, as shown in the following circuit diagram.
Therefore, in class AB amplifier design, each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly
more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of conduction
of class A.
The conduction angle of class AB amplifier is somewhere between 180o to 360o depending
upon the operating point selected. This is understood with the help of below figure.

The small bias voltage given using diodes D1 and D2, as shown in the above figure, helps the
operating point to be above the cutoff point. Hence the output waveform of class AB results as
seen in the above figure. The crossover distortion created by class B is overcome by this class
AB, as well the inefficiencies of class A and B don’t affect the circuit.
So, the class AB is a good compromise between class A and class B in terms of efficiency and
linearity having the efficiency reaching about 50% to 60%. The class A, B and AB amplifiers
are called as linear amplifiers because the output signal amplitude and phase are linearly
related to the input signal amplitude and phase.
Class C Power Amplifier
When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier
is known as class C power amplifier.
The efficiency of class C amplifier is high while linearity is poor. The conduction angle for class
C is less than 180o. It is generally around 90o, which means the transistor remains idle for more
than half of the input signal. So, the output current will be delivered for less time compared to
the application of input signal.
The following figure shows the operating point and output of a class C amplifier.

This kind of biasing gives a much-improved efficiency of around 80% to the amplifier, but
introduces heavy distortion in the output signal. Using the class C amplifier, the pulses produced
at its output can be converted to complete sine wave of a particular frequency by using LC
circuits in its collector circuit.
 Comparison of Class A, Class B, Class AB, and Class C Power amplifiers

Amplifier Conduction Maximum

DESCRIPTION Q point IQ
Class type Angle Efficiency

Class A Conduction over the full 360° of the cycle 0.5 0.5 θ = 2π 50%

Conduction occurs over half the cycle, i.e. for

Class B 0 0 θ=π 78%
180°

Conduction occurs for slightly more than half

Class AB 0-0.5 0-0.5 θ < θ < 2π 50-78%
the cycle, i.e. slightly more than 360°

Conduction occurs for less than 180° of the approaches

Class C <0 0 θ<π
cycle, but this creates distortion to 100%
 Tuned Amplifiers
The amplifiers that we have discussed so far cannot work effectively at radio frequencies, even
though they are good at audio frequencies. Also, the gain of these amplifiers is such that it will
not vary according to the frequency of the signal, over a wide range. This allows the
amplification of the signal equally well over a range of frequencies and does not permit the
selection of particular desired frequency while rejecting the other frequencies.
What is a Tuned Amplifier?
Tuned amplifiers are the amplifiers that are employed for the purpose of tuning. Tuning
means selecting. Among a set of frequencies available, if there occurs a need to select a
particular frequency, while rejecting all other frequencies, such a process is called Selection.
This selection is done by using a circuit called as Tuned circuit.
The tuned amplifier designed to reject all frequencies below low cut off FL and above upper
cut off frequency FH

When an amplifier circuit has its load replaced by a tuned circuit, such an amplifier can be
called as a Tuned amplifier circuit. The basic tuned amplifier circuit looks

The tuner circuit is nothing but a LC circuit which is also called as resonant or tank circuit.
It selects the frequency. A tuned circuit is capable of amplifying a signal over a narrow band
of frequencies that are centered at resonant frequency.
When the reactance of the inductor balances the reactance of the capacitor, in the tuned circuit
at some frequency, such a frequency can be called as resonant frequency. It is denoted by fr.
The formula for resonance is
𝟏
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 =
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
 𝟏
𝒇𝒓 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
Types of Tuned Circuits
A tuned circuit can be Series tuned circuit (Series resonant circuit) or Parallel tuned circuit
(parallel resonant circuit) according to the type of its connection to the main circuit.
Series Tuned Circuit
The inductor and capacitor connected in series make a series tuned circuit, as shown in the
following circuit diagram.

At resonant frequency, a series resonant circuit offers low impedance which allows high
current through it. A series resonant circuit offers increasingly high impedance to the
frequencies far from the resonant frequency.
Parallel Tuned Circuit
The inductor and capacitor connected in parallel make a parallel tuned circuit, as shown in the
below figure.

At resonant frequency, a parallel resonant circuit offers high impedance which does not allow
high current through it. A parallel resonant circuit offers increasingly low impedance to the
frequencies far from the resonant frequency.
Characteristics of a Parallel Tuned Circuit
The frequency at which parallel resonance occurs (i.e. reactive component of circuit current
becomes zero) is called the resonant frequency fr. The main characteristics of a tuned circuit
are as follows.
Impedance
The ratio of supply voltage to the line current is the impedance of the tuned circuit. Impedance
offered by LC circuit is given by
 Supply voltage 𝑉
=
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
At resonance, the line current increases while the impedance decreases.
The below figure represents the impedance curve of a parallel resonance circuit.

Impedance of the circuit decreases for the values above and below the resonant frequency fr.
Hence the selection of a particular frequency and rejection of other frequencies is possible.
The circuit impedance Zr is obtained as
𝐿
𝑍𝑟 =
𝐶𝑅
Quality Factor
For a parallel resonance circuit, the sharpness of the resonance curve determines the
selectivity. The smaller the resistance of the coil, the sharper the resonant curve will be. Hence
the inductive reactance and resistance of the coil determine the quality of the tuned circuit.
The ratio of inductive reactance of the coil at resonance to its resistance is known as Quality
factor. It is denoted by Q.
𝑋𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿
𝑄= =
𝑅 𝑅
The higher the value of Q, the sharper the resonance curve and the better the selectivity will
be.
Advantages of Tuned Amplifiers
The following are the advantages of tuned amplifiers.
• The usage of reactive components like L and C, minimizes the power loss, which
makes the tuned amplifiers efficient.
• The selectivity and amplification of desired frequency is high, by providing higher
impedance at resonant frequency.
• A smaller collector supply VCC would do, because of its little resistance in parallel
tuned circuit.
It is important to remember that these advantages are not applicable when there is a high
resistive collector load.
Frequency Response of Tuned Amplifier
For an amplifier to be efficient, its gain should be high. This voltage gain depends upon β,
input impedance and collector load. The collector load in a tuned amplifier is a tuned circuit.
The voltage gain of such an amplifier is given by
𝛽𝑍𝐶
Voltage gain = 𝑍𝑖𝑛

Where ZC = effective collector load and Zin = input impedance of the amplifier.
The value of ZC depends upon the frequency of the tuned amplifier. As Z C is maximum at
resonant frequency, the gain of the amplifier is maximum at this resonant frequency.
Bandwidth
The range of frequencies at which the voltage gain of the tuned amplifier falls to 70.7% of the
maximum gain is called its Bandwidth.
The range of frequencies between f1 and f2 is called as bandwidth of the tuned amplifier. The
bandwidth of a tuned amplifier depends upon the Q of the LC circuit i.e., upon the sharpness
of the frequency response. The value of Q and the bandwidth are inversely proportional.
The figure below details the bandwidth and frequency response of the tuned amplifier.

Relation between Q and Bandwidth

The quality factor Q of the bandwidth is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to
bandwidth, i.e.,
𝑓𝑟
𝑄=
𝐵𝑊
In general, a practical circuit has its Q value greater than 10.
Types of tuned Amplifiers
There are two main types of tuned amplifiers. They are −
• Single tuned amplifier
 • Double tuned amplifier
• Stagger tuned amplifier
Single Tuned Amplifier
An amplifier circuit with a single tuner section being at the collector of the amplifier circuit
is called as Single tuner amplifier circuit.
Construction
A simple transistor amplifier circuit consisting of a parallel tuned circuit in its collector load,
makes a single tuned amplifier circuit. The values of capacitance and inductance of the tuned
circuit are selected such that its resonant frequency is equal to the frequency to be amplified.
The following circuit diagram shows a single tuned amplifier circuit.

The output can be obtained from the coupling capacitor CC as shown above or from a
secondary winding placed at L.
Operation
The high frequency signal that has to be amplified is applied at the input of the amplifier. The
resonant frequency of the parallel tuned circuit is made equal to the frequency of the signal
applied by altering the capacitance value of the capacitor C, in the tuned circuit.
At this stage, the tuned circuit offers high impedance to the signal frequency, which helps to
offer high output across the tuned circuit. As high impedance is offered only for the tuned
frequency, all the other frequencies which get lower impedance are rejected by the tuned
circuit. Hence the tuned amplifier selects and amplifies the desired frequency signal.
Frequency Response
The parallel resonance occurs at resonant frequency fr when the circuit has a high Q. the
resonant frequency fr is given by
𝟏
𝒇𝒓 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
The following graph shows the frequency response of a single tuned amplifier circuit.

At resonant frequency fr the impedance of parallel tuned circuit is very high and is purely
resistive. The voltage across RL is therefore maximum, when the circuit is tuned to resonant
frequency. Hence the voltage gain is maximum at resonant frequency and drops off above and
below it. The higher the Q, the narrower will the curve be.
Double Tuned Amplifier
An amplifier circuit with a double tuner section being at the collector of the amplifier circuit
is called as Double tuner amplifier circuit.
Construction
The construction of double tuned amplifier is understood by having a look at the following
figure. This circuit consists of two tuned circuits L1C1 and L2C2 in the collector section of the
amplifier. The signal at the output of the tuned circuit L1C1 is coupled to the other tuned circuit
L2C2 through mutual coupling method. The remaining circuit details are same as in the single
tuned amplifier circuit, as shown in the following circuit diagram.

Operation
The high frequency signal which has to be amplified is given to the input of the amplifier. The
tuning circuit L1C1 is tuned to the input signal frequency. At this condition, the tuned circuit
offers high reactance to the signal frequency. Consequently, large output appears at the output
of the tuned circuit L1C1 which is then coupled to the other tuned circuit L2C2 through mutual
induction. These double tuned circuits are extensively used for coupling various circuits of
radio and television receivers.
Frequency Response of Double Tuned Amplifier
The double tuned amplifier has the special feature of coupling which is important in
determining the frequency response of the amplifier. The amount of mutual inductance
between the two tuned circuits states the degree of coupling, which determines the frequency
response of the circuit.
In order to have an idea on the mutual inductance property, let us go through the basic
principle.
Mutual Inductance
As the current carrying coil produces some magnetic field around it, if another coil is brought
near this coil, such that it is in the magnetic flux region of the primary, then the varying
magnetic flux induces an EMF in the second coil. If this first coil is called as Primary coil,
the second one can be called as a Secondary coil.
When the EMF is induced in the secondary coil due to the varying magnetic field of the
primary coil, then such phenomenon is called as the Mutual Inductance.
The figure below gives an idea about this.

The current is in the figure indicate the source current while iind indicates the induced current.
The flux represents the magnetic flux created around the coil. This spreads to the secondary
coil also.
With the application of voltage, the current is flows and flux gets created. When the current is
varies the flux gets varied, producing iind in the secondary coil, due to the Mutual inductance
property.
Coupling
Under the concept of mutual inductance coupling will be as shown in the figure below.
When the coils are spaced apart, the flux linkages of primary coil L1 will not link the
secondary coil L2. At this condition, the coils are said to have Loose coupling. The resistance
reflected from the secondary coil at this condition is small and the resonance curve will be
sharp and the circuit Q is high as shown in the figure below.

On the contrary, when the primary and secondary coils are brought close together, they
have Tight coupling. Under such conditions, the reflected resistance will be large and the
circuit Q is lower. Two positions of gain maxima, one above and the other below the resonant
frequency are obtained.
Bandwidth of Double Tuned Circuit
The above figure clearly states that the bandwidth increases with the degree of coupling. The
determining factor in a double tuned circuit is not Q but the coupling.
We understood that, for a given frequency, the tighter the coupling the greater the bandwidth
will be.
The equation for bandwidth is given as
𝐵𝑊𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘𝑓𝑟
Where BWdt = bandwidth for double tuned circuit, K = coefficient of coupling, and f r =
resonant frequency.
We hope that now you have gained sufficient knowledge regarding the functioning of tuned
amplifiers

What is Stagger Tuned Amplifier?

Staggered tuned amplifier definition is an amplifier that is used to improve the
total frequency response of the tuned amplifier. Usually, these amplifiers are
designed to exhibit an overall response for maximal flatness in the region of the
center frequency.
This amplifier uses tuned circuits to operate in union. The total frequency response
of this amplifier can be achieved by adding up the separate response as one. When
the different tuned circuit’s resonant frequencies are staggered otherwise displaced,
then it is known as a stagger tuned amplifier.
Stagger Tuned Amplifier Working
The circuit diagram shown below is a two-stage stagger tuned amplifier. In this
circuit, the stagger tuning can be achieved by producing the tuned circuits like L1C1
and L2C2 to a little different frequency. The stagger tuned amplifier circuit is
shown below.

stagger-tuned-
amplifier
The double-tuned amplifier offers high BW like 3dB. However, the arrangement of this
amplifier is not easy. So to conquer this difficulty two single tuned cascaded
amplifiers are employed which have certain bandwidth. The resonant frequencies of
BWs are adjusted and divided through an amount equivalent to the BW of every
stage.
As these frequencies are staggered and called as stagger tuned amplifiers. The
characteristics of these amplifiers are shown below. The following image shows the
main relationship between individual stages amplification characteristics within a
stagger tuned amplifier.
The amplifier using stagger tuning has greater BW, faster passband and number of
stages used. The flatter will be the passband. The circuit is called stagger because
the tuned circuit’s resonance frequencies are displaced.

stagger-tuned-amplifier-output-response
The stagger tuned amplifier’s total frequency response is contrasted with the
equivalent and separate single tuned stages. These stages include similar resonant
circuits. In the following characteristics, the staggering decrease in the total
amplification of the middle frequency to 0.5 of the crest amplification of the
separation stage. At middle frequency, every stage includes 0.707 crest amplification
of the separation stage. Therefore, the corresponding voltage amplification for each
stage of the stagger will be 0.707 times higher when the two similar stages are
utilized without staggering.
stagger-tuned-amplifier-characteristics
But, the 3dB BW of the stagger pair is √2 times higher than the BW of an individual
single tuned stage. Therefore the corresponding gain BW product for each stage of
stagger tuned pair can be 0.707 x √2 is equal to 1.00 times with the separate single
tuned stages.
The thought of stagger tuned can be simply expanded to additional stages. In 3-stage
staggering, the tuning of the primary circuit can be adjusted to a lower frequency
than the center frequency. The 3rd circuit can be adjusted to high frequency
compared with middle frequency. The tuned frequency which is in middle is
adjusted at the precise center frequency.
Stagger Tuned Amplifier Derivation
The single tuned amplifier’s gain can be written as
Av/Av (resonance) = 1/ 1+2jQeff 
= 1/1+jX
Where X = 2Qeff 
In a stagger tuned amplifier, the two amplifiers like single tuned cascaded are
utilized with separate resonant frequencies. Assume that, if one stage of the amplifier
is tuned with the frequency like fr + 𝛿 and another stage of the amplifier is tuned
with the frequency like fr – 𝛿. Thus we have fr1 = fr + 𝛿 and fr2 = fr – .
Based on the above two frequencies fr1 and fr2, the selectivity function can be
written as
Av/Av (resonance)1 = 1/ j(X+1)
Av/Av (resonance)2 = 1/ j(X-1)
The total gain of these stages is equal to the product of two stages of individual gains
Av/Av (resonance) cascaded = Av/Av (resonance)1 * Av/Av (resonance)2
= 1/ j(X+1) * 1/ j(X-1)
= 1/ 2+2jX-X2 = 1/ (2-X2) + 2jX
|Av/Av (resonance) cascaded| = 1/√ (2-X2)2 + (2jX) 2
= 1/√ (4-4X2+X4+4X2) = 1/√4+X4
We know the value of X = 2Qeff 
Substitute this value in the above equation.
= 1/√4+(2Qeff  )4
= 1/√4+16Q4eff  4 = 1/2√1+4Q4eff  4
Advantages and Disadvantages
The stagger tuned amplifier advantages & disadvantages include the following.
• By using this amplifier an increased BW can be obtained. Compare with a
single tune, the BW is √2 times.
• This amplifier has a high value of gain BW.
• In every stage of the amplifier, there is a small difference within the
resonance. Therefore, enhanced stability within an operation can be
obtained.
• The bandpass of this amplifier is faster compare with a single tuned amplifier.
The alignment of this circuit is easy when we compare it with the single
tuned amplifier.
Applications
The stagger tuned amplifier applications include the following.
• It is used in a superheterodyne receiver as an IF (intermediate frequency)
amplifier
 • It is used in UHF radio relay systems.
• It is extremely narrow-band intermediate frequency amplifier within a
spectrum analyzer
• It is used like a wideband tuned amplifier intended for Y-amplifiers within
oscilloscopes;
• It is used for video amplification like a wideband tuned amplifier.
• It is used like RF amplifiers within receivers
• IF amplifier in a satellite transponder
Thus, this is all about Stagger tuned amplifier. From the above information finally,
we can conclude that these amplifiers are usually designed so that the total frequency
response exhibits maximum flatness approximately the middle frequency. It requires
several tuned circuits to operate in combination. Once the frequency is changed
above & below the resonant frequency, then it falls off quickly.