ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

LECTURE NOTES

on

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

2020 – 2021

II B. Tech II Semester (EC405PC)

Mr. JEEVAN YANDA, Assistant Professor

Guru Nanak Institute of Technology

Ibrahimpatnam, R.R.District – 501 506 (T.S)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

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EC405PC: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

B.Tech. II Year II Sem LTPC
3003
Pre-requisite: Electronic Devices and Circuits

Course Objectives:
➢ Learn the concepts of high frequency analysis of transistors.
➢ To give understanding of various types of amplifier circuits such as small signal, cascaded, large signal
and tuned amplifiers.
➢ To familiarize the Concept of feedback in amplifiers so as to differentiate between negative and
positive feedback
➢ To construct various multivibrators using transistors and sweep circuits.

Course Outcomes: Upon completing this course, the student will be able to
➢ Design the multistage amplifiers and understand the concepts of High Frequency Analysis of
Transistors.
➢ Utilize the Concepts of negative feedback to improve the stability of amplifiers and positive feedback
to generate sustained oscillations
➢ Design and realize different classes of Power Amplifiers and tuned amplifiers useable for audio and
Radio applications.
➢ Design Multivibrators and sweep circuits for various applications.

UNIT I
Multistage Amplifiers: Classification of Amplifiers, Distortion in
amplifiers, Different coupling
schemes used in amplifiers, Frequency response and Analysis of
multistage amplifiers, RC Coupled amplifiers, Cascade amplifier,
Darlington pair.
Transistor at High Frequency: Hybrid 𝜋model of Common Emitter
transistor model, fα, fβ and unity gain bandwidth, Gain-
bandwidth product.

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UNIT I
Multistage Amplifiers and
Transistor at High Frequency

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1.1 Classification of amplifiers

Amplifiers are classified according to many considerations.
1.1.1 Based on number of stages
Depending upon the number of stages of Amplification, there are Single-stage amplifiers and Multi-stage
amplifiers.
• Single-stage Amplifiers − This has only one transistor circuit, which is a single stage amplification.
• Multi-stage Amplifiers − This has multiple transistor circuit, which provides multi-stage
amplification.
1.1.2 Based on its output
Depending upon the parameter that is amplified at the output, there are voltage and power amplifiers.
• Voltage Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the voltage level of the input signal, is
called as Voltage amplifier.
• Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the power level of the input signal, is called
as Power amplifier.
1.1.3 Based on the input signals
Depending upon the magnitude of the input signal applied, they can be categorized as Small signal and large
signal amplifiers.
• Small signal Amplifiers − When the input signal is so weak so as to produce small fluctuations in
the collector current compared to its quiescent value, the amplifier is known as Small signal
amplifier.
• Large signal amplifiers − When the fluctuations in collector current are large i.e. beyond the linear
portion of the characteristics, the amplifier is known as large signal amplifier.
1.1.4 Based on the frequency range
Depending upon the frequency range of the signals being used, there are audio and radio amplifiers.
• Audio Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in the audio frequency
range i.e. from 20Hz to 20 KHz frequency range, is called as audio amplifier.
• Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in a very high frequency
range, is called as Power amplifier.
1.1.5 Based on Biasing Conditions
Depending upon their mode of operation, there are class A, class B and class C amplifiers.
• Class A amplifier − The biasing conditions in class A power amplifier are such that the collector
current flows for the entire AC signal applied.

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• Class B amplifier − The biasing conditions in class B power amplifier are such that the collector
current flows for half-cycle of input AC signal applied.
• Class C amplifier − The biasing conditions in class C power amplifier are such that the collector
current flows for less than half cycle of input AC signal applied.
• Class AB amplifier − The class AB power amplifier is one which is created by combining both class
A and class B in order to have all the advantages of both the classes and to minimize the problems
they have.
1.1.6 Based on the Coupling method
Depending upon the method of coupling one stage to the other, there are RC coupled, Transformer coupled
and direct coupled amplifier.
• RC Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage using
resistor and capacitor (RC) combination can be called as a RC coupled amplifier.
• Transformer Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage,
with the help of a transformer, can be called as a Transformer coupled amplifier.
• Direct Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage directly,
can be called as a direct coupled amplifier.
1.1.7 Based on the Transistor Configuration
Depending upon the type of transistor configuration, there are CE CB and CC amplifiers.
• CE amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CE configured transistor combination is
called as CE amplifier.
• CB amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CB configured transistor combination is
called as CB amplifier.
• CC amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CC configured transistor combination is
called as CC amplifier.

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Type of
Type of Type of Frequency of Type of Based on Number of
Configuratio
Signal Biasing Operation coupling the output stages
n
Single
Small Class A RC coupled Voltage
Common Direct Current stage
Signal Amplifier amplifiers amplifiers
Emitter (DC) amplifiers
Audio Inductive
Large Class B Power Two stage
Common Frequencies coupled
Signal Amplifier amplifiers amplifiers
Base (AF) amplifiers

Radio Transformer
Class AB Multistage
Common Frequencies coupled
Amplifier amplifiers.
Collector (RF) amplifiers

Class C VHF, UHF and Direct coupled the number

SHF Amplifiers. of stages,
Amplifier
Frequencies

1.2 Distortion in amplifiers

if we incorrectly design our amplifier circuit and set the biasing Q-point at the wrong position on the load
line or apply too large an input signal to the amplifier, the resultant output signal may not be an exact
reproduction of the original input signal waveform. In other words, the amplifier will suffer from what is
commonly called Amplifier Distortion

Distortion of the output signal waveform may occur because:

Amplification may not be taking place over the whole signal cycle due to incorrect biasing levels.
The input signal may be too large, causing the amplifiers transistors to be limited by the supply voltage.
The amplification may not be a linear signal over the entire frequency range of inputs.
There are three types of Amplifier distortions

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➢ Amplitude distortion
➢ Frequency distortion
➢ Phase distortion
1.2.1 Amplitude Distortion
Amplitude distortion occurs when the peak values of the frequency waveform are attenuated causing
distortion due to a shift in the Q-point and amplification may not take place over the whole signal cycle.
This non-linearity of the output waveform is shown below.
Amplitude Distortion due to Incorrect Biasing

If the transistors biasing point is correct, the output waveform should have the same shape as that of the
input waveform but amplified. If there is insufficient bias and the Q-point lies in the lower half of the load
line, then the output waveform will look like the one on the right with the negative half of the output
waveform “cut-off” or clipped. Likewise, if there is too much bias and the Q-point lies in the upper half of
the load line, then the output waveform will look like the one on the left with the positive half “cut-off” or
clipped.
Also, when the bias voltage is set too small, during the negative half of the cycle the transistor does not
fully conduct so the output is set by the supply voltage. When the bias is too great the positive half of the
cycle saturates the transistor and the output drops almost to zero.
Even with the correct biasing voltage level set, it is still possible for the output waveform to become
distorted due to a large input signal being amplified by the circuits gain. The output voltage signal becomes
clipped in both the positive and negative parts of the waveform an no longer resembles a sine wave, even
when the bias is correct. This type of amplitude distortion is called Clipping and is the result of “over-
driving” the input of the amplifier.
When the input amplitude becomes too large, the clipping becomes substantial and forces the output
waveform signal to exceed the power supply voltage rails with the peak (+ve half) and the trough (-ve half)
parts of the waveform signal becoming flattened or “Clipped-off”. To avoid this the maximum value of the
input signal must be limited to a level that will prevent this clipping effect as shown above.

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Amplitude Distortion due to Clipping

Amplitude Distortion greatly reduces the efficiency of an amplifier circuit. These “flat tops” of the distorted
output waveform either due to incorrect biasing or over driving the input do not contribute anything to the
strength of the output signal at the desired frequency.
Having said all that, some well known guitarist and rock bands actually prefer that their distinctive sound is
highly distorted or “overdriven” by heavily clipping the output waveform to both the +ve and -ve power
supply rails. Also, increasing the amounts of clipping on a sinusoid will produce so much amplifier
distortion that it will eventually produce an output waveform which resembles that of a “square wave”
shape which can then be used in electronic or digital synthesizer circuits.
We have seen that with a DC signal the level of gain of the amplifier can vary with signal amplitude, but as
well as Amplitude Distortion, other types of amplifier distortion can occur with AC signals in amplifier
circuits, such as Frequency Distortion and Phase Distortion.
1.2.2 Frequency Distortion
Frequency Distortion is another type of amplifier distortion which occurs in a transistor amplifier when the
level of amplification varies with frequency. Many of the input signals that a practical amplifier will
amplify consist of the required signal waveform called the “Fundamental Frequency” plus a number of
different frequencies called “Harmonics” superimposed onto it.
Normally, the amplitude of these harmonics are a fraction of the fundamental amplitude and therefore have
very little or no effect on the output waveform. However, the output waveform can become distorted if
these harmonic frequencies increase in amplitude with regards to the fundamental frequency. For example,
consider the waveform below:
Frequency Distortion due to Harmonics

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In the example above, the input waveform consists the fundamental frequency plus a second harmonic
signal. The resultant output waveform is shown on the right-hand side. The frequency distortion occurs
when the fundamental frequency combines with the second harmonic to distort the output signal. Harmonics
are therefore multiples of the fundamental frequency and in our simple example a second harmonic was
used.
Therefore, the frequency of the harmonic is twice the fundamental, 2*ƒ or 2ƒ. Then a third harmonic would
be 3ƒ, a fourth, 4ƒ, and so on. Frequency distortion due to harmonics is always a possibility in amplifier
circuits containing reactive elements such as capacitance or inductance.
1.2.3 Phase Distortion
Phase Distortion or Delay Distortion is a type of amplifier distortion which occurs in a non-linear transistor
amplifier when there is a time delay between the input signal and its appearance at the output.
If we say that the phase change between the input and the output is zero at the fundamental frequency, the
resultant phase angle delay will be the difference between the harmonic and the fundamental. This time
delay will depend on the construction of the amplifier and will increase progressively with frequency within
the bandwidth of the amplifier. For example, consider the waveform below:
Phase Distortion due to Delay

Other than high end audio amplifiers, most practical amplifiers will have some form of Amplifier
Distortion being a combination of both “Frequency Distortion” and “Phase Distortion”, together with
amplitude distortion. In most applications such as in audio amplifiers or power amplifiers, unless the

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amplifiers distortion is excessive or severe it will not generally affect the operation or output sound of the
amplifier.
In the next tutorial about amplifiers, we will look at the Class A Amplifier. Class A amplifiers are the most
common type of amplifier output stage making them ideal for use in audio power amplifiers.
1.3 Different coupling schemes used in amplifiers
Purpose of coupling device
The basic purposes of a coupling device are
To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next stage.
To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next stage, which means to isolate the
DC condition
Types of Coupling
Joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade, using coupling devices forms a Multi-stage amplifier
circuit. There are four basic methods of coupling, using these coupling devices such as resistors, capacitors,
transformers etc. Let us have an idea about them.
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling
This is the mostly used method of coupling, formed using simple resistor-capacitor combination. The
capacitor which allows AC and blocks DC is the main coupling element used here.
The coupling capacitor passes the AC from the output of one stage to the input of its next stage. While
blocking the DC components from DC bias voltages to effect the next stage. Let us get into the details of
this method of coupling in the coming chapters.

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Transformer Coupling
The coupling method that uses a transformer as the coupling device can be called as Transformer coupling.
There is no capacitor used in this method of coupling because the transformer itself conveys the AC
component directly to the base of second stage.
The secondary winding of the transformer provides a base return path and hence there is no need of base
resistance. This coupling is popular for its efficiency and its impedance matching and hence it is mostly
used.

Direct Coupling
If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the next amplifier stage directly, it is called as direct
coupling. The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so designed that the stages can be directly
connected without DC isolation.

The direct coupling method is mostly used when the load is connected in series, with the output terminal of
the active circuit element. For example, head-phones, loud speakers etc.

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Comparison of coupling techniques

S.No Particular RC Coupling Transformer Coupling Direct Coupling

Frequency response Excellent in audio

1 Poor Best
frequency range

2 Cost Less More Least

Space and Weight

3 Less More Least

Impedance matching
4 Not good Excellent Good

For amplifying
5 Use For voltage amplification For Power amplification extremely low
frequencies

1.4 Cascade amplifier or Multi-stage amplifiers

In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually insufficient, though it is a voltage or
power amplifier. Hence, they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor amplifiers.
In Cascade/Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage using a
coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a transformer. This process of joining
two amplifier stages using a coupling device can be called as Cascading.
By combining several amplification stages, we can make product of gain-bandwidth is stable,. The cascade
amplifier theory is used for high gain as well as high bandwidth
The following figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected in cascade.

The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages.

𝑉2 𝑉0 𝑉0
𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉1 𝑋𝐴𝑉2 = 𝑋 =
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1
Where 𝐴𝑉 = Overall gain, 𝐴𝑉1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and 𝐴𝑉2 = Voltage gain of 2nd stage.
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If there are n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be the overall gain of that
multistage amplifier circuit.
Normally the circuit can be designed with two configurations of a transistor namely CE (common-emitter)
and CB (common base). The CB (common base) configuration provides a good high-frequency operation.
Applications
• This amplifier is used in tuned RF amplifiers within television circuits.
• This amplifier can also be used as a wideband amplifier.
• The isolation offered among input & output with these amplifiers is extremely high.

1.5 Frequency response and Analysis of multistage amplifiers

Frequency response of an amplifier is a plot between gain & frequency. If the gain is constant (same) for all
frequencies of the input signal, then this plot would be a flat line
a frequency response of a typical amplifier.

Where 0dB = mid band voltage gain (in dB)

fL = Lower cut – off frequency. (in Hz)

fH = Upper cut - off frequency (in Hz)
Usually the frequency response of an amplifier is divided into three regions. (i) The mid band region or flat
region, over which the gain is constant (ii) The lower frequency region. Here the amplifier behaves like a
high pass filter (iii) In the high frequency region above mid band, the circuit often behaves like the low pass
filter

Mid frequency:
• Gain is constant
• The reactance of coupling capacitor in series with resistance is very small so it can be neglected

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• The internal capacitors reactance is large (since capacitance is less) and since capacitors are parallel
to resistors it can be neglected
Low frequency:
• Transistor behaves as HPF
𝐴
Voltage gain 𝐴𝑂𝐿 =
2
√1+(𝑓𝐿 )
𝑓

1
Where 𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
1
At f = 𝑓𝐿 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = 𝐴 where A is mid-band gain
√2

High frequency:
• Transistor behaves as LPF
𝐴
• Voltage gain 𝐴𝑂𝐻 =
2
√1+( 𝑓 )
𝑓𝐻

1
• Where 𝑓𝐻 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
1
• At f = 𝑓𝐻 𝐴𝑂𝐻 = 𝐴 where A is mid-band gain
√2

As the frequency is increased, the reactance of C decreases. Hence more voltage is dropped across Rs and
less is available at the output. Thus, the voltage gain of the amplifier decreases at high frequencies.
BANDWIDTH:

The range of frequencies from fL to fH is called the bandwidth of the amplifier. The product of mid band
gain and the 3dB Bandwidth of an amplifier is called the Gain-bandwidth product. It is figure of merit or
performance measure for the amplifier.
1.6 RC Coupled Amplifier
Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier
The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are as follows. The two-
stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration and a common power supply
VCC is used. The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re form the biasing and stabilization
network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the
amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that
connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the shift of operating
point. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.

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Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and appears at the
collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the next stage. This becomes the
input of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears across its collector load. Thus the signal is
amplified in stage by stage action.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product of the gains of
individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage, the effective load
resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of the second stage.
Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last stage remains unchanged.
As we consider a two-stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because the phase reversal is
done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier
Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain and function of
frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the following graph.

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From the above graph, it is understood that voltage gain decreases for the frequencies below 50Hz and for
the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20
KHz is constant.
We know that,
𝑋𝐶 = 1⁄2𝜋𝑓𝑐
It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.
At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the reactance is
quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC are so high that only small
part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass capacitor CE is also very high
during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistance effectively. With all these factors, the
voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)
Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at high frequencies. So, a
capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of this, the loading effect of the next
stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode
decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor due to which the current gain (β) reduces. Hence the
voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.
At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)
The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as shown in figure. If
the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC decreases which tends to increase the gain. But
this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of the next stage by which there is a reduction in
gain.
Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.
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Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

• The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide frequency range, hence
most suitable for audio applications.
• The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
• It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
• Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
• The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
• They become noisy with age.
• Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.
Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier
• They have excellent audio fidelity (o/p is exactly similar to i/p) over a wide range of frequency.
• Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
1.7 Cascode amplifier
While the C-B (common-base) amplifier is known for wider bandwidth than the C-E (common-emitter)
configuration, the low input impedance (10s of Ω) of C-B is a limitation for many applications. The solution
is to precede the C-B stage by a low gain C-E stage which has moderately high input impedance (kΩs).
The cascade amplifier configuration has both wide bandwidth and a moderately high input impedance.

The cascade amplifier is combined common-emitter and common-base. This is an AC circuit equivalent
with batteries and capacitors replaced by short circuits
The key to understanding the wide bandwidth of the cascade configuration is the Miller effect.
The Miller effect is the multiplication of the bandwidth robbing collector-base capacitance by voltage
gain Av. This C-B capacitance is smaller than the E-B capacitance. Thus, one would think that the C-B
capacitance would have little effect. However, in the C-E configuration, the collector output signal is out of

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phase with the input at the base. The collector signal capacitively coupled back opposes the base signal.
Moreover, the collector feedback is (1-Av) times larger than the base signal. Keep in mind that Av is a
negative number for the inverting C-E amplifier. Thus, the small C-B capacitance appears (1+|Av|) times
larger than its actual value. This capacitive gain reducing feedback increases with frequency, reducing the
high frequency response of a C-E amplifier.
A common-base configuration is not subject to the Miller effect because the grounded base shields the
collector signal from being fed back to the emitter input. Thus, a C-B amplifier has better high frequency
response. To have a moderately high input impedance, the C-E stage is still desirable. The key is to reduce
the gain (to about 1) of the C-E stage which reduces the Miller effect C-B feedback
The current gain, as well as the i/p resistance of the cascade arrangement, is equivalent to the related value
of a common emitter single-stage amplifier. The o/p resistance can be equivalent to the common base
configuration. The miller’s capacitor shunting the common emitter input stage is extremely small.
Applications
➢ This amplifier is used in tuned RF amplifiers within television circuits.
➢ This amplifier can also be used as a wideband amplifier.
➢ The isolation offered among input & output with these amplifiers is extremely high.

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1.8 Darlington pair

The main feature of Darlington Transistor is that the composite transistor acts as single unit with current
gain is the product of current gains of individual transistors
Used to improve i/p impedance

The Darlington Transistor named after its inventor, Sidney Darlington is a special arrangement of two
standard NPN or PNP bipolar junction transistors (BJT) connected together. The Emitter of one transistor is
connected to the Base of the other to produce a more sensitive transistor with a much larger current gain
being useful in applications where current amplification or switching is required.
A Darlington Transistor configuration, also known as a “Darlington pair” or “super-alpha circuit”, consist
of two NPN or PNP transistors connected together so that the emitter current of the first
transistor TR1 becomes the base current of the second transistor TR2. Then transistor TR1 is connected as an
emitter follower and TR2 as a common emitter amplifier as shown below.

Using the NPN Darlington pair as the example, the collectors of two transistors are connected together, and
the emitter of TR1 drives the base of TR2. This configuration achieves β multiplication because for a Base
current ib, the collector current is β*ib where the current gain is greater than one, or unity and this is defined
as

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But the base current, IB2 is equal to transistor TR1 emitter current, IE1 as the emitter of TR1 is connected to
the base of TR2. Therefore:

Then substituting in the first equation

Where β1 and β2 are the gains of the individual transistors

This means that the overall current gain, β is given by the gain of the first transistor multiplied by the gain of
the second transistor as the current gains of the two transistors multiply. In other words, a pair of bipolar
transistors combined together to make a single Darlington transistor pair can be regarded as a single
transistor with a very high value of β and consequently a high input resistance.
If two identical bipolar transistors are used to make a single Darlington device then β1 is equal to β2 and the
overall current gain will be given as:

Generally, the value of β2 is much greater than that of 2β, in which case it can be ignored. Then the final
equation for two identical transistors configured as a Darlington pair can be written as:

Then we can see that for two identical transistors, β2 is used instead of β acting like one big transistor with a
huge amount of gain. Darlington transistor pairs with current gains of more than a thousand with maximum
collector currents of several amperes are easily available

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Darlington pair advantages

• Very high current gain
• Very high input impedance for overall circuit
• Darlington pairs are widely available in a single package or they can be made from two separate
transistors
• Convenient and easy circuit configuration to use
Darlington pair disadvantages
• Slow switching speed
• Limited bandwidth
• Introduces a phase shift that can give rise to problems at certain frequencies in circuit using negative
feedback
• Higher overall base-emitter voltage = 2 x Vbe.
• High saturation voltage (typically around 0.7 V) which can lead to high levels of power dissipation in
some applications
1.9 Hybrid π model of Common Emitter transistor model
The low frequency small signal model of bipolar junction transistor crudely holds for frequencies below 1
MHz, for frequencies greater than 1 MHz the response of the transistor will be limited by internal and
parasitic capacitances of the bipolar junction transistor. Hence at high frequencies the low frequency small
signal model of transistor has to be modified to include the effects of internal and parasitic capacitances of
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bipolar junction transistor. These capacitance’s limit the usage of BJT at higher frequencies. Thus, in order to
estimate the gain and switching on and off times of BJT at higher frequencies the high frequency model of
BJT has to be used to get reasonably accurate estimates
At low frequencies, we can analyze the transistor using h-parameters. But for high frequency, analysis of h-
parameter model is not suitable for following reasons.
➢ The values of h-parameters are not constant at high frequencies. So it is necessary to analyze
transistor at each and every frequency which is impractical.
➢ At high frequency h-parameters become complex in nature.
But the High frequency effects on BJT are
➢ The gain decreases at high frequencies due to internal feedback capacitances. The highest frequency
of operation of BJT will be limited by internal capacitance’s of BJT.
➢ The on and off switching times of BJT will be high and speed will be limited due to internal charge
storage effects
So at high frequencies the capacitive effects of transistor junctions and the delay in response of transistor
caused by the process of diffusion of carriers should be taken into consideration to determine high frequency
model
At low frequencies it is assumed that transistor responds instantaneously to changes in the input voltage or
current i.e., if you give AC signal between the base and emitter of a Transistor amplifier in Common Emitter
configuraii6n and if the input signal frequency is low, the output at the collector will exactly follow the
change in the input (amplitude etc.,). If '1' of the input is high (MHz) and the amplitude of the input signal is
changing the Transistor amplifier will not be able to respond.
It is because; the carriers from the emitter side will have to be injected into the collector side. These take
definite amount of time to travel from Emitter to Base, however small it may be. But if the input signal is
varying at much higher speed than the actual time taken by the carries to respond, then the Transistor
amplifier will not respond instantaneously. Thus, the junction capacitances of the transistor, puts a limit to
the highest frequency signal which the transistor can handle. Thus, depending upon doping area of the
junction etc, we have transistors which can respond in AF range and also RF range.

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To study and analyze the behaviour of the transistor to high frequency signals an equivalent model based
upon transmission line equations will be accurate. But this model will be very complicated to analyze. So,
some approximations are made and the equivalent circuit is simplified. If the circuit is simplified to a great
extent, it will be easy to analyze, but the results will not be accurate. If no approximations are made, the
results will be accurate, but it will be difficult to analyze. The desirable features of an equivalent circuit for
analysis are simplicity and accuracy. Such a circuit which is fairly simple and reasonably accurate is the
Hybrid-pi or Hybrid-π model, so called because the circuit is in the form of π
Due to the above reasons, modified T model and hybrid π models are used for high frequency analysis of the
transistor. These models give a reasonable compromise between accuracy and simplicity to do high
frequency analysis of the transistor.
Common emitter circuit is most important practical configuration and this is useful for the analysis of
transistor using hybrid - π model. The following figure shows the hybrid - π model for a transistor in CE
configuration. For this model, all parameters are assumed to be independent of frequency. But they may vary
with the quiescent operating point.

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Elements in hybrid – π model:

Cb’e: Forward biased PN junction exhibits a capacitive effect called diffusion capacitance. This capacitive
effect of normally forward biased base- emitter junction of the transistor is represented by Cb’e or Ce.
The diffusion capacitance is connected between b’ and e represents the excess minority carrier storage
in the base. Its typical value is 100pF

Cb’c: The reverse bias PN junction exhibits a capacitive effect called transition capacitance. This capacitive
effect of normally reverse biased collector base junction of the transistor is represented by Cb’c or
Cc. Its typical value is 3pF

rbb’: It is the base spreading resistance between the actual base B and virtual base B’(The internal node b’ is
physically not accessible bulk node b represents external base terminal). Its typical value is 100Ω

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

rb’e: It is the portion of the base emitter which may be thought of as being in series with the collector
junction. This establishes a virtual base b’ for junction capacitances to be connected instead of b. Its
typical value is 1KΩ

Input resistance from base to emitter with the output shorted is simply hie= rbb’+ rb’e

rb’c: Due to early effect, varying voltages across collector to emitter junction results in base-width
modulation. A change in the effective base -width causes the emitter current to change. This feedback
effect between output and input is taken into account by connecting gb’c or rb’c between b’ and c.
and its typical value is 4MΩ
gm: Due to small changes in voltage Vb’e across emitter junction, there is excess minority carrier
concentration injected into the base which is proportional to Vb’e. So, resulting small signal collector
current with collector shorted to the emitter is also proportional to Vb’e
gm is also called as trans conductance and it is given as,

rce: It is the output resistance. It is also the result of early effect. Since rce» RL if load resistance is

connected rce can be neglected

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1.9.1 Determination of Hybrid-π Conductances

a) Base Spreading Resistance (rbb’)

The value of input resistance is equal to hie, when the output terminals are short circuited i.e., Vce = 0. Under
these conditions the input resistance

b) Feedback Conductance (gb’c)

if the input terminals are open circuited, then the reverse voltage gain hre is given by

c) Conductance between Terminals C and E (gce)

if the input terminals are open circuited (Ib=0) then
Vb’e = hreVce
And when Ib =0 collector current Ic is given by

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

d) Conductance between Terminals B’ and E(Feedback Conductance) (gb’e)

As the value of rb’c is much greater than rb’e most of the current Ib flow through rb’e and the value of Vb’e is
given by

Transconductance or Mutual Conductance (gm)

The transconductance is defined as the ratio of change in IC to change in Vb’e for constant valueof collector

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to emitter voltage (Vce). For common emitter configuration the collector current is given by

1.9.2 Hybrid-π Capacitances

a) Collector to (base) junction (Cb’c or Cc)
Cb’c : capacitive effect (Transition cap) of Reverse biased base- collector junction (Cc)
It is the output capacitance of transistor
b) Emitter to (base) junction (Cb’e or Ce)
Cb’e : capacitive effect (Diffusion cap) of forward biased base- emitter junction (Ce)

The relation between low frequency h- parameters and high frequency parameters
|𝐼𝑐 | |𝐼𝑐 |
𝑖) 𝑔𝑚 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑇⁄11600 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑇 = 26𝑚𝑉, 𝑠𝑜 𝑔𝑚 =
𝑉𝑇 26𝑚𝑉
ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑖𝑖) 𝑟𝑏′𝑒 =
𝑔𝑚
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑟𝑏′𝑏 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 𝑟𝑏′ 𝑒

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1 𝑟𝑏 ′ 𝑒
𝑖𝑣) 𝑟𝑏′ 𝑐 = =
𝑔𝑏′ 𝑐 ℎ𝑟𝑒
1
v) 𝑔𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟 = ℎ𝑜𝑒 − (1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 )𝑔𝑏′𝑐
𝑐𝑒

𝑚 𝑔
vi) 𝐶𝑏′𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏′𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇

fT is the frequency at which the short circuit Common Emitter current gain becomes unity

1.9.3 CE Short circuit Current gain

The transistor’s high frequency capability can be known if its CE short circuit forward current gain is found
as a function of frequency.
As the load resistance (RL) short circuited the approximate high frequency model is given as

Where Cb’e is in parallel Cb’c

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the short circuit current is given by

From the circuit

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The current gain

1.10 fα, fβ and unity gain bandwidth

1.10.1 β Cut off frequency
The β cut off frequency fβ also referred as fhfe is CE short circuit small signal forward current gain cutoff
frequency
fβ is the frequency at which CE short circuit current gain drops 3dB from its value at mid frequency. It
represents maximum attainable bandwidth for current gain of CE amplifier

1.10.2 α Cut off frequency

A CB amplifier has much higher 3dB frequency than CE amplifier. The short-circuit current gain of CB
amplifier derived from approximate high frequency analysis is given by

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1.10.3 Unity gain bandwidth

The Parameters fT is the frequency at which the short circuit Common Emitter current gain becomes unity.
We have

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑖 = 1 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑇

ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑠𝑜 =1
2
𝑓
√1 + ( 𝑇 )
𝑓𝛽

2
𝑓𝑇
ℎ𝑓𝑒 = √1 + ( )
𝑓𝛽

2 2
2 𝑓𝑇 𝑓𝑇
(ℎ𝑓𝑒 ) = 1 + ( ) ≅ ( )
𝑓𝛽 𝑓𝛽

𝑓𝑇
ℎ𝑓𝑒 ≅
𝑓𝛽

𝑓𝑇 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 . 𝑓𝛽
𝑔𝑚
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋ℎ𝑓𝑒 (𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐 )

𝑔𝑚
𝑠𝑜 𝑓𝑇 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 . 𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋(𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐 )
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑒 ≫ 𝐶𝑐
𝑔𝑚
𝑓𝑇 =
2𝜋 𝐶𝑒

This shows the dependence of transistor short circuit current gain on low frequency gain hfe and the high
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frequency characteristic fT

1.11 Gain - Bandwidth (B.W) Product

This is a measure to denote the performance of an amplifier circuit. Gain - B. W product is also referred as
Figure of Merit of an amplifier. Any amplifier circuit must have large gain and large bandwidth. For certain
amplifier circuits, the mid band gain Am maybe large, but not Band width or Vice - Versa. Different
amplifier circuits can be compared with thus parameter.

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Low freq. band: Gain falls off due to effect of coupling and bypass capacitors.
Mid band: All capacitors and delay effects can be neglected.
High freq. band: Gain falls off due to the internal capacitive effects in transistor

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Question bank

Short Answer Questions

1. Draw the circuit diagram of Darlington Pair How does the input impedance increases due to
Darlington connection?

A Darlington Transistor configuration, also known as a “Darlington pair” or “super-alpha circuit”,

consist of two transistors connected together so that the emitter current of the first
transistor TR1 becomes the base current of the second transistor TR2. Then transistor TR1 is
connected as an emitter follower and TR2 as a common emitter amplifier
input impedance increases due to the first transistor in the Darlington pair has a much lower base
current than the second transistor
2. Define Gain bandwidth product
The gain–bandwidth product (designated as GBWP, GBW, GBP, or GB) for an amplifier is the
product of the amplifier's bandwidth and the gain at which the bandwidth is measured. It is the
performance measure of the transistor
3. What are the types of distortion in amplifiers?
There are three types of Amplifier distortions
➢ Amplitude distortion
➢ Frequency distortion
➢ Phase distortion
4. How the amplifiers are classified?
Amplifiers are classified according to many considerations.
➢ Based on number of stages
➢ Based on its output
➢ Based on the input signals
➢ Based on the frequency range

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➢ Based on Biasing Conditions

➢ Based on the Coupling method
➢ Based on the Transistor Configuration
5. What are the merits and demerits of a cascade amplifier over a simple CE amplifier?
➢ In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually insufficient, though it
is a voltage or power amplifier. Hence, they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor amplifiers
➢ By combining several amplification stages, we can make product of gain-bandwidth is stable,
The cascade amplifier theory is used for high gain as well as high bandwidth
➢ If there are n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be the
overall gain of that multistage amplifier circuit.
6. Compare CE, CC and CB with their characteristics.
Characteristic Common base (CB) Common emitter (CE) Common collector (CC)
Input Dynamic Very Low (less than Low(less than 1K) Very High(750K)
Resistance 100 ohm)
Output Dynamic Very High High Low
Resistance
Current Gain Less than 1 High Very High
Voltage gain Greater than CC but Highest Lowest(less than 1)
less than CE
Power gain Medium Highest Medium
Leakage current Very small Very large Very large
Relationship In phase Out of phase(180º) In phase
between I/p and o/p
Application For High freq. For Audio freq. For impedance Matching
applications Applications Application

7. Write a short note on frequency response of BJT amplifiers

Frequency response of an amplifier is a plot between gain & frequency. If the gain is constant (same)
for all frequencies of the input signal, then this plot would be a flat line
a frequency response of a typical amplifier.

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Where 0dB = mid band voltage gain (in dB)

fL = Lower cut – off frequency. (in Hz)
fH = Upper cut - off frequency (in Hz)
Usually the frequency response of an amplifier is divided into three regions. (i) The mid band region
or flat region, over which the gain is constant (ii) The lower frequency region. Here the amplifier
behaves like a high pass filter (iii) In the high frequency region above mid band, the circuit often
behaves like the low pass filter
The range of frequencies from fL to fH is called the bandwidth of the amplifier
8. Why is a CE amplifier widely used? List down its main limitations.
Advantages of CE amplifier:
➢ A common emitter amplifier is inverting and has low input impedance
➢ high output impedance
➢ high voltage gain
➢ high current gain.
Disadvantages of CE amplifier:
➢ It has a high output resistance.
➢ It responds poorly to high frequencies.
➢ It has high thermal instabilities.
➢ It's voltage gain is very unstable.
9. What are the typical values of h-parameters of CE configuration?
hie = 1000 Ω
hre = 3 x 10-4
hoe = 3 x 10-6S
hfe = 250

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Long Answer Questions

1. Classify the amplifiers according to the method of coupling.
Depending upon the method of coupling one stage to the other, there are RC coupled, Transformer
coupled and direct coupled amplifier.
• RC Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage using
resistor and capacitor (RC) combination can be called as a RC coupled amplifier.
The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration and a common
power supply VCC is used. The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re form the
biasing and stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the
signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the
amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor
that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the shift of
operating point. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.

• Transformer Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage,
with the help of a transformer, can be called as a Transformer coupled amplifier.
The amplifier circuit in which, the previous stage is connected to the next stage using a coupling
transformer, is called as Transformer coupled amplifier.
The coupling transformer T1 is used to feed the output of 1st stage to the input of 2nd stage. The
collector load is replaced by the primary winding of the transformer. The secondary winding is
connected between the potential divider and the base of 2nd stage, which provides the input to the

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2nd stage. Instead of coupling capacitor like in RC coupled amplifier, a transformer is used for
coupling any two stages, in the transformer coupled amplifier circuit.

• Direct Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage directly,
can be called as a direct coupled amplifier.
Direct coupling is just what it sounds like – two amplifier stages are direct coupled if the output of
the first stage is connected to the input of the second without the use of capacitors.

2. Why the h parameter model is not suitable to analyse transistor at high frequencies?
At low frequencies, we can analyze the transistor using h-parameters. But for high frequency,
analysis of h-parameter model is not suitable for following reasons.
➢ The values of h-parameters are not constant at high frequencies. So it is necessary to analyze
transistor at each and every frequency which is impractical.

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➢ At high frequency h-parameters become complex in nature.

Due to the above reasons, modified T model and hybrid ∏ models are used for high frequency
analysis of the transistor. These models give a reasonable compromise between accuracy and
simplicity to do high frequency analysis of the transistor.
3. Explain the working of cascode amplifier with neat circuit diagram.
Cascode is a technique implied to improve the performance of the analog circuits. The same
technique can be applied to transistors and the vacuum tubes to make the circuit better performance-
wise. The word cascode is initiated in the year 1939 by Frederick Vinton Hunt’s and Roger Wayne
Hickman’s article during the discussion of voltage stabilizer applications. The discussion was about
to propose a method to replace the pentode by cascoding two triodes. In cascoding, two transistors are
used either BJTs or FETs such that one configuration acts as an input stage whose output is provided
as input to the output collecting configuration. Miller Effect can be isolated by the usage of a cascode
amplifier.
If an amplifier comprises of BJTs then the input stage is a common-emitter configuration that feeds to
the common base at which the output is collected. This type of amplifier is known as a cascode
amplifier.

The characteristics due to the cascoding of amplifiers are:

• The impedances at input and output are high.
• The signals amplification undergoes under high bandwidths possessed by the system.
• The isolation amid input and the output is high.
As there is no direct communication or coupling from output to input because of high isolation leads
to eliminate the miller effect.
Miller Effect
It is a phenomenon that occurs mainly in feedback circuits. If the voltage amplifier is inverting there
is an increase in the equivalent capacitance at the input due to the capacitance effect amplification

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amid the terminals of input and output. This increase in the capacitance value is known as virtual
capacitance and it may lead to a reduction in the bandwidth. To overcome this situation, the
cascoding technique is used in amplifiers.
4. Explain RC-coupled CE transistor amplifier circuit, Derive the expression for the CE short
circuit current gain Ai as a function of frequency using Hybrid - π model.
RC-coupled CE transistor amplifier circuit

Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and appears at
the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the next stage. This
becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears across its collector load.
Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage action.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product of the
gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage,
the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input
resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last stage
remains unchanged.
As we consider a two-stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because the phase
reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.
CE Short circuit Current gain
The transistor’s high frequency capability can be known if its CE short circuit forward current gain
is found as a function of frequency.
As the load resistance (RL) short circuited the approximate high frequency model is given as

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Where Cb’e is in parallel Cb’c

the short circuit current is given by

From the circuit

The current gain

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5. Define fβ and fT and derive the relation between fβ and fT, Discuss the significance of fT
β Cut off frequency (fβ)
The β cut off frequency fβ also referred as fhfe CE short circuit small signal forward current gain
cutoff frequency
fβ is the frequency at which CE short circuit current gain drops 3dB from its value at mid frequency.
It represents maximum attainable bandwidth for current gain of CE amplifier

The Parameters fT is the frequency at which the short circuit Common Emitter current gain becomes
unity.
We have

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑖 = 1 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑇

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ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑠𝑜 =1
2
𝑓
√1 + ( 𝑇 )
𝑓𝛽

2
𝑓𝑇
ℎ𝑓𝑒 = √1 + ( )
𝑓𝛽

2 2
2 𝑓𝑇 𝑓𝑇
(ℎ𝑓𝑒 ) = 1 + ( ) ≅ ( )
𝑓𝛽 𝑓𝛽

𝑓𝑇
ℎ𝑓𝑒 ≅
𝑓𝛽

𝑓𝑇 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 . 𝑓𝛽
𝑔𝑚
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋ℎ𝑓𝑒 (𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐 )

𝑔𝑚
𝑠𝑜 𝑓𝑇 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 . 𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋(𝐶𝑒 + 𝐶𝑐 )
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑒 ≫ 𝐶𝑐
𝑔𝑚
𝑓𝑇 =
2𝜋 𝐶𝑒

This shows the dependence of transistor short circuit current gain on low frequency gain hfe and the
high frequency characteristic fT

6. Draw the Darlington circuit and derive the expressions for the overall current gain, voltage
gain, input impedance and output impedance.

The main feature of Darlington Transistor is that the composite transistor acts as single unit with
current gain is the product of current gains of individual transistors
Used to improve i/p impedance

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Using the NPN Darlington pair as the example, the collectors of two transistors are connected
together, and the emitter of TR1 drives the base of TR2. This configuration
achieves β multiplication because for a Base current ib, the collector current is β*ib where the
current gain is greater than one, or unity and this is defined as

But the base current, IB2 is equal to transistor TR1 emitter current, IE1 as the emitter of TR1 is
connected to the base of TR2. Therefore:

Then substituting in the first equation

Where β1 and β2 are the gains of the individual transistors

This means that the overall current gain, β is given by the gain of the first transistor multiplied by
the gain of the second transistor as the current gains of the two transistors multiply. In other words,
a pair of bipolar transistors combined together to make a single Darlington transistor pair can be
regarded as a single transistor with a very high value of β and consequently a high input resistance.
If two identical bipolar transistors are used to make a single Darlington device then β1 is equal
to β2 and the overall current gain will be given as:

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Generally, the value of β2 is much greater than that of 2β, in which case it can be ignored. Then the final
equation for two identical transistors configured as a Darlington pair can be written as:

7. Draw the hybrid-‘π’ model of common emitter configuration and describe each component in
the ‘π’ -model.
Modified T model and hybrid π models are used for high frequency analysis of the transistor. These
models give a reasonable compromise between accuracy and simplicity to do high frequency analysis
of the transistor.
Common emitter circuit is most important practical configuration and this is useful for the analysis of
transistor using hybrid - π model. The following figure shows the hybrid - π model for a transistor in
CE configuration. For this model, all parameters are assumed to be independent of frequency. But
they may vary with the quiescent operating point.

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Elements in hybrid – π model:

Cb’e: Forward biased PN junction exhibits a capacitive effect called diffusion capacitance. This
capacitive effect of normally forward biased base- emitter junction of the transistor is
represented by Cb’e or Ce. The diffusion capacitance is connected between b’ and e represents
the excess minority carrier storage in the base. Its typical value is 100pF

Cb’c: The reverse bias PN junction exhibits a capacitive effect called transition capacitance. This
capacitive effect of normally reverse biased collector base junction of the transistor is
represented by Cb’c or Cc. Its typical value is 3pF

rbb’: It is the base spreading resistance between the actual base B and virtual base B’(The internal
node b’ is physically not accessible bulk node b represents external base terminal). Its typical
value is 100Ω

rb’e: It is the portion of the base emitter which may be thought of as being in series with the
collector junction. This establishes a virtual base b’ for junction capacitances to be connected
instead of b. Its typical value is 1KΩ

Input resistance from base to emitter with the output shorted is simply hie= rbb’+ rb’e

rb’c: Due to early effect, varying voltages across collector to emitter junction results in base-width
modulation. A change in the effective base -width causes the emitter current to change. This
feedback effect between output and input is taken into account by connecting gb’c or
rb’c between b’ and c. and its typical value is 4MΩ

gm: Due to small changes in voltage Vb’e across emitter junction, there is excess minority carrier
concentration injected into the base which is proportional to Vb’e. So, resulting small signal
collector current with collector shorted to the emitter is also proportional to Vb’e
gm is also called as trans conductance and it is given as,

rce: It is the output resistance. It is also the result of early effect. Since rce» RL if load

resistance is connected rce can be neglected

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8. Derive the expression for the bandwidth of multistage amplifier.

The bandwidth of multistage amplifier is always less than that of the bandwidth of single stage
amplifier.
Overall Lower Cut-off Frequency of Multistage Amplifier:

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Overall Higher Cut-off Frequency of Multistage Amplifier:

Let us consider the upper 3dB frequency of n identical cascaded stages as fH(n). It is the frequency
for which the overall gain falls to 1/√2 (3dB) of its midband value.

Taking nth root on both the sides,

21/n = 1 + [ fH(n)/fH ]2
21/n -1 = [ fH(n)/fH ]2
Taking square root on both the sides,

√21/n -1 = fH(n)/fH
fH(n) = fH √21/n -1

In multistage amplifier fL(n) is always greater than fL and fH(n) is always less than fH. So the
bandwidth of multistage amplifier is always less than single stage amplifier.

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9. What is the use of transformer coupling in the output of multistage amplifier?

The main drawback with RC coupled amplifier is low voltage and power gain due to effective load
RAC which is decreased due to low resistance of each stage to the preceding stage. To overcome this
problem, the RC coupling is replaced by transformer coupling. The input impedance of an amplifier
is low while its output impedance is very high. When they are coupled to make a multistage
amplifier, the high output impedance of one stage comes in parallel with the low input impedance of
next state. Hence effective load (RAC) is decreased. The resistance on the secondary side of a
transformer reflected on the primary depends upon the turn ratio of the transformer. By the use of
impedance-changing properties of transformer, the low resistance of a stage (or load) can be reflected
as a high load resistance to the previous stage. Transformer coupling is generally used: i. For small
loads. ii. For power amplification

Fig shows two stages of transformer coupled amplifier. A coupling transformer is used to feed the
output of one stage to the input of the next stage. The primary P of this transformer is made the
collector load and its secondary S gives input to the next stage.
Operation
When an a.c. signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it appears in the amplified form across
primary P of the coupling transformer. The voltage developed across primary is transferred to the
input of the next stage by the transformer secondary. The second stage renders amplification in an
exactly similar manner. It is clear that frequency response is rather poor i.e. gain is constant only over
a small range of frequency. The output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by
reactance of primary. At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in
decreased gain. At high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass
condenser to reduce the output voltage and hence gain. It follows, therefore, that there will be
disproportionate amplification of frequencies in a complete signal such as music, speech etc. Hence,

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transformer coupled amplifier introduces frequency distortion. It may be added here that in a properly
designed transformer, it is possible to achieve a fairly constant gain over the audio frequency range.
But a transformer that achieves a frequency response comparable to RC coupling may cost 10 to 20
times as much as the inexpensive RC coupled amplifier.
Advantages
➢ No signal power is lost in the collector or base resistors.
➢ An excellent impedance matching can be achieved in a transformer coupled amplifier. It is
easy to make the inductive reactance of primary equal to the output impedance of the
transistor and inductive reactance of secondary equal to the input impedance of next stage.
➢ Due to excellent impedance matching, transformer coupling provides higher gain. As a matter
of fact, a single stage of properly designed transformer coupling can provide the gain of two
stages of RC coupling.
Disadvantages
➢ Poor frequency response i.e. the gain varies considerably with frequency.
➢ The coupling transformers are bulky and fairly expensive at audio frequencies.
➢ Frequency distortion is higher i.e. low frequency signals are less amplified as compared to the
high frequency signals.
➢ Transformer coupling tends to introduce hum in the output.
Applications
Transformer coupling is generally used for impedance matching. In general, the last stage of a
multistage amplifier is the power stage. Here, our main purpose is to transfer maximum power to the
output device e.g. a loudspeaker. For maximum power transfer, the impedance of power source
should be equal to that of load. Usually, the impedance of an output device is a few ohms whereas the
output impedance of transistor is several hundred times this value. In order to match the impedance, a
step-down transformer of proper turn ratio is used. The impedance of secondary of the transformer is
made equal to the load impedance and primary impedance equal to the output impedance of transistor

10. In hybrid ‘pi’ model of a transistor at high frequencies, show that the gm is proportional to the
collector current
The transconductance is defined as the ratio of change in IC to change in Vb’e for constant value of
collector to emitter voltage (Vce). For common emitter configuration the collector current is given by

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11. Discuss about effect of Cb on frequency response of RC coupled amplifier.

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain and function
of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the following graph.

From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the frequencies
below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for the range of
frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.
We know that,

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XC=1/2πfc
It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.
At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the reactance
is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC are so high that only
small part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass capacitor C E is also
very high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistance effectively. With all
these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)
Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at high frequencies.
So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of this, the loading effect of
the next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of
emitter diode decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor due to which the current gain
(β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.
At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)
The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as shown in
figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC decreases which tends to increase
the gain. But this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of the next stage by which
there is a reduction in gain.
Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.
12. Draw the circuit diagram of Direct Coupled Amplifier and explain its operation in detail
As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the amplifier stages is done directly and hence called
as Direct coupled amplifier.
The figure below indicates the three-stage direct coupled transistor amplifier. The output of first
stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of second stage transistor T2.

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The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor, while the transistor in the next stage will be
a PNP transistor and so on. This is because, the variations in one transistor tend to cancel the
variations in the other. The rise in the collector current and the variation in β of one transistor gets
cancelled by the decrease in the other.
Operation
The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets amplified due to the transistor
action and the amplified output appears at the collector resistor Rc of transistor T1. This output is
applied to the base of transistor T2 which further amplifies the signal. In this way, a signal is
amplified in a direct coupled amplifier circuit.
Advantages
• The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
• The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling devices.
Disadvantages
• It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
• The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Applications
The applications of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
• Low frequency amplifications.
• Low current amplifications.

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Problems
1. A transistor biased at 5mA, 10V, hie =600Ω, hfe=100, CC=3pF and current gain of 10 at a frequency
of 20MHz. Find β cut off frequency, gain band width product, Ce, rb′e and rbb′

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2. A transistor biased at 20mA, 20V, it has the h-parameters at room temperature hie =500Ω, hfe=100,
hre =10-4, hoe =4×10-5℧. It has fT =50MHz and CC=3pF. Find all the values of hybrid π components.

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3. The 3-db bandwidth of an amplifier extends from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Find the frequency range over
which the voltage gain differs by only 1 dB from the mid band value.

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4. Compute the overall lower cut-off frequency of an identical two stage cascade of amplifiers with
𝑓𝐿1
individual lower cut-off frequency given as 412 Hz. (𝑓𝐿 = )
√21⁄𝑁 −1

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5. Given the following transistor measurements made at IC=5mA and VCE = 5 V and at room
temperature. hie = 600 ohms, hfe=100, Cb’c=3PF and Ai=10 at 10 MHz. Find fβ, fT, Cb’e, rb’e and
rbb′ of hybrid equivalent circuit in CE configuration.

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 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

6. A CE amplifier is drawn by a voltage source of internal resistance R S = 800 ohms and load
impedance is a resistance RL = 1000 ohms. The h-parameters are hie = 1.0 K ohms, hre = 2 ×10-4,
hfe = 50 and hoe = 25 μ A/V. compute AI, RI, AV, Ro using exact analysis.

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Objective Questions
1. The frequency response of transformer coupling is ________
a) Good
b) Very Good
c) Excellent
d) Poor
Answer: d
2. What is the purpose of RC or transformer coupling?
a) To block a.c.
b) To separate bias of one stage from another
c) Increase thermal stability
d) Increase Efficiency
Answer: b
3. Why is RC coupling confined to low power applications?
a) Due to large value of coupling capacitor
b) Low efficiency
c) Large number of components
d) Due to is frequency response
Answer: b
4. A radio receiver has how many stages of amplification?
a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) More than one
Answer: d
5. Which of the following is an advantage of RC coupling scheme?
a) Good impedance matching
b) Economy
c) High efficiency
d) Frequency response
Answer: b
6. The voltage gain is practically expressed in _______

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a) db
b) volts
c) as a number
d) ampere
Answer: a
7. If a three-stage amplifier has individual stage gains of 10db, 6db and 15db; then the total gain in db is
______
a) 600db
b) 24db
c) 14db
d) 31db
Answer: d

8. For extremely low frequencies, RC coupling is not used because of ___________

a) There is considerable power loss
b) There is a hum in the output
c) Electrical size of the coupling capacitor
d) Low efficiency
Answer: c
9. Which transformer is used for impedance matching in transistor coupled amplifier?
a) step-up
b) step-down
c) same turn ratio
d) different turn ratio
Answer: b
10. Gain of an amplifier usually expressed in db because _______________
a) It is a small unit
b) Calculations become easy
c) Human ear response is logarithmic
d) Gain is reduced
Answer: c

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11. The total gain of a multistage amplifier is less than the product of the gains of individual stages due to
___________
a) Power loss in the coupling device
b) Loading effect of the next stage
c) The use of many transistors
d) The use of many capacitors
Answer: b
12. A radio receiver has …………… of amplification
1. One stage
2. Two stages
3. Three stages
4. More than one stages
Answer: 4
13. RC coupling is used for ………………. amplification
1. Voltage
2. Current
3. Power
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
14. In an RC coupled amplifier, the voltage gain over mid-frequency range …………….
1. Changes abruptly with frequency
2. Is constant
3. Changes uniformly with frequency
4. None of the above
Answer: 2
15. In obtaining the frequency response curve of an amplifier, the …………
1. Amplifier level output is kept constant
2. Amplifier frequency is held constant
3. Generator frequency is held constant
4. Generator output level is held constant
Answer: 4
16. An advantage of RC coupling scheme is the ………….

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1. Good impedance matching

2. Economy
3. High efficiency
4. None of the above
Answer: 2
17. The best frequency response is of ………. coupling
1. RC
2. Transformer
3. Direct
4. None of the above
Answer: 3
18. Transformer coupling is used for ………….. amplification
1. Power
2. Voltage
3. Current
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
19. In an RC coupling scheme, the coupling capacitor CC must be large enough ………..
1. To pass d.c. between the stages
2. Not to attenuate the low frequencies
3. To dissipate high power
4. None of the above
Answer: 2
20. In RC coupling, the value of coupling capacitor is about ……….
1. 100 pF
2. 0.1 µF
3. 0.01 µF
4. 10 µF
Answer: 4
21. The noise factor of an ideal amplifier expressed in db is …………..
1. 0
2. 1

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3. 1
4. 10
Answer: 1
22. When a multistage amplifier is to amplify d.c. signal, then one must use …….. coupling
1. RC
2. Transformer
3. Direct
4. None of the above
Answer: 3
23. ………….. coupling provides the maximum voltage gain
1. RC
2. Transformer
3. Direct
4. Impedance
Answer: 2
24. In practice, voltage gain is expressed ……………
1. In db
2. In volts
3. As a number
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
25. Transformer coupling provides high efficiency because …………
1. Collector voltage is stepped up
2. c. resistance is low
3. collector voltage is stepped down
4. none of the above
Answer: 2
26. Transformer coupling is generally employed when load resistance is ………
1. Large
2. Very large
3. Small
4. None of the above

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Answer: 3
27. If a three-stage amplifier has individual stage gains of 10 db, 5 db and 12 db, then total gain in db
is ……….
1. 600 db
2. 24 db
3. 14 db
4. 27 db
Answer: 4
28. The final stage of a multistage amplifier uses ………………
1. RC coupling
2. Transformer coupling
3. Direct coupling
4. Impedance coupling
Answer: 2
29. The ear is not sensitive to ………….
1. Frequency distortion
2. Amplitude distortion
3. Frequency as well as amplitude distortion
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
30. RC coupling is not used to amplify extremely low frequencies because ………
1. There is considerable power loss
2. There is hum in the output
3. Electrical size of coupling capacitor becomes very large
4. None of the above
Answer: 3
31. In transistor amplifiers, we use ……………. transformer for impedance matching
1. Step up
2. Step down
3. Same turn ratio
4. None of the above
Answer: 2

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32. The lower and upper cut off frequencies are also called ………………… frequencies
1. Sideband
2. Resonant
3. Half-resonant
4. Half-power
Answer: 4

33. A gain of 1,000,000 times in power is expressed by …………….

1. 30 db
2. 60 db
3. 120 db
4. 600 db
Answer: 2
34. A gain of 1000 times in voltage is expressed by …………..
1. 60 db
2. 30 db
3. 120 db
4. 600 db
Answer: 1
35. 1 db corresponds to ………….. change in power level
1. 50%
2. 35%
3. 26%
4. 22%
Answer: 3
36. 1 db corresponds to …………. change in voltage or current level
1. 40%
2. 80%
3. 20%
4. 25%
Answer: 1
37. The frequency response of transformer coupling is ………….

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1. Good
2. Very good
3. Excellent
4. Poor
Answer: 4

38. In the initial stages of a multistage amplifier, we use ………..

1. RC coupling
2. Transformer coupling
3. Direct coupling
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
39. The total gain of a multistage amplifier is less than the product of the gains of individual stages due
to …………
1. Power loss in the coupling device
2. Loading effect of the next stage
3. The use of many transistors
4. The use of many capacitors
Answer: 2
40. The gain of an amplifier is expressed in db because ………..
1. It is a simple unit
2. Calculations become easy
3. Human ear response is logarithmic
4. None of the above
Answer: 3
41. If the power level of an amplifier reduces to half, the db gain will fall by …….
1. 5 db
2. 2 db
3. 10 db
4. 3 db
Answer: 4
42. A current amplification of 2000 is a gain of …………….

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1. 3 db
2. 66 db
3. 20 db
4. 200 db
Answer: 2
43. An amplifier receives 0.1 W of input signal and delivers 15 W of signal power. What is the power
gain in db?
1. 8 db
2. 6 db
3. 5 db
4. 4 db
Answer: 1
44. The power output of an audio system is 18 W. For a person to notice an increase in the output
(loudness or sound intensity) of the system, what must the output power be increased to ?
1. 2W
2. 6W
3. 68 W
4. None of the above
Answer: 3
45. The output of a microphone is rated at -52 db. The reference level is 1V under specified conditions.
What is the output voltage of this microphone under the same sound conditions?
1. 5 mV
2. 2 mV
3. 8 mV
4. 5 mV
Answer: 4
46. RC coupling is generally confined to low power applications because of ………
1. Large value of coupling capacitor
2. Low efficiency
3. Large number of components
4. None of the above
Answer: 2

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47. The number of stages that can be directly coupled is limited because ……...
1. Changes in temperature cause thermal instability
2. Circuit becomes heavy and costly
3. It becomes difficult to bias the circuit
4. None of the above
Answer: 1
48. The purpose of RC or transformer coupling is to …………
1. Block a.c.
2. Separate bias of one stage from another
3. Increase thermal stability
4. None of the above
Answer: 2
49. The upper or lower cut off frequency is also called ………….. frequency
1. Resonant
2. Sideband
3. 3 db
4. None of the above
Answer: 3
50. The bandwidth of a single stage amplifier is …………. that of a multistage amplifier
1. More than
2. The same as
3. Less than
4. Data insufficient
Answer: 1
51. The value of emitter capacitor CE in a multistage amplifier is about ……...
1. 1 µF
2. 100 pF
3. 0.01 µF
4. 50 µF
Answer: 4

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