Chapter: Computer Networks - Class 12
CBSE
1. Introduction to Computer Networks
Definition: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that
communicate with each other to share resources, data, and applications.
Key Goals:
1. Resource Sharing: Share hardware (e.g., printers), software, and files.
2. Reliability: Ensure data is available even if a device fails.
3. Scalability: Easily add new devices to the network.
4. Cost Efficiency: Share expensive devices like servers.
2. Types of Networks
Based on Size:
1. PAN (Personal Area Network): Small-scale, used for personal devices (e.g.,
Bluetooth, smartphones, smartwatches).
2. LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographical area (e.g., office,
school).
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a city (e.g., cable TV networks).
4. WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers a large area (e.g., the Internet).
Based on Architecture:
1. Client-Server: Central server manages requests from clients.
2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P): No central server; devices act as both clients and servers.
3. Network Devices
Switch: Connects devices in a LAN and forwards data to the intended recipient.
Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices in a network.
Router: Connects multiple networks (e.g., a LAN to the Internet).
Gateway: Acts as a translator between two different protocols.
Access Point: Extends wireless network coverage.
NIC (Network Interface Card): Hardware to connect devices to a network.
4. Transmission Media
Guided Media (Wired):
1. Twisted Pair Cable: Used in LANs; low cost; susceptible to interference.
2. Coaxial Cable: Higher bandwidth than twisted pair; used in cable TV.
3. Fiber Optic Cable: Uses light; high speed and long-distance communication.
Unguided Media (Wireless):
1. Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.
2. Microwaves: Used for long-distance communication (e.g., satellites).
3. Infrared: Used in remote controls.
4. Satellite Communication: Used for global broadcasting.
5. Network Topologies
Definition: The layout pattern of connections in a network.
Types:
1. Star Topology: Devices connect to a central hub. Easy to troubleshoot but
fails if the hub fails.
2. Bus Topology: Single backbone cable connects devices. Inexpensive but
prone to failure if the backbone breaks.
3. Ring Topology: Devices form a circular connection. Data flows in one
direction; failure at one point affects the entire network.
4. Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device. Expensive
but provides redundancy.
5. Tree Topology: Combination of star and bus. Used in hierarchical setups like
schools.
6. Protocols
Definition: A set of rules for data communication.
Examples:
o HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Used for web browsing.
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For transferring files.
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): For sending emails.
o IMAP/POP3: For retrieving emails.
o TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Fundamental
protocols for the Internet.
o DNS (Domain Name System): Converts domain names to IP addresses.
7. IP Addressing
Definition: A unique address assigned to each device in a network.
Types:
1. IPv4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
2. IPv6: 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Classification of IPv4:
o Class A: Large networks (1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0).
o Class B: Medium-sized networks (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0).
o Class C: Small networks (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0).
8. Wireless Technologies
Wi-Fi: Wireless local area networking standard (802.11).
Bluetooth: Short-range wireless technology.
3G/4G/5G: Cellular technologies for Internet access.
NFC (Near Field Communication): Used in contactless payments.
9. Network Security
Threats:
o Malware: Viruses, worms, ransomware.
o Phishing: Deceptive emails/websites to steal information.
o Hacking: Unauthorized access to systems.
Preventive Measures:
1. Firewalls: Monitor and block unauthorized traffic.
2. Antivirus Software: Detects and removes malware.
3. Encryption: Secures data during transmission.
4. Authentication: Ensures only authorized users access the network.
10. Cloud Computing
Definition: Delivery of computing services (e.g., storage, databases) over the Internet.
Types:
o IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Virtual machines, servers (e.g., AWS).
o PaaS (Platform as a Service): Platforms for development (e.g., Google App
Engine).
o SaaS (Software as a Service): Software accessed via a browser (e.g., Google
Docs).
Advantages:
o Cost-effective, scalable, and accessible from anywhere.
11. Modes of Data Transmission
Simplex: One-way communication (e.g., TV broadcasting).
Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, one at a time (e.g., walkie-talkies).
Full-Duplex: Two-way simultaneous communication (e.g., phone calls).
12. Networking Models
OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection):
1. Physical Layer: Hardware transmission (e.g., cables).
2. Data Link Layer: Error detection and frame handling.
3. Network Layer: Routing and addressing (e.g., IP).
4. Transport Layer: End-to-end communication (e.g., TCP).
5. Session Layer: Session management between applications.
6. Presentation Layer: Data translation (e.g., encryption).
7. Application Layer: End-user services (e.g., HTTP, FTP).
TCP/IP Model:
1. Network Interface: Physical and data link layers combined.
2. Internet: Network layer (e.g., IP).
3. Transport: Similar to OSI transport layer (e.g., TCP).
4. Application: Combines session, presentation, and application layers.
13. Communication Techniques
Synchronous: Data sent at regular intervals.
Asynchronous: Data sent as needed with start/stop bits.
Bandwidth: Maximum data transfer rate of a network.
