1.

Research Design: Methods & Types

A research design is a step-by-step approach used by a researcher to conduct a scientific study. It includes
various methods and techniques to conduct research so that a research problem can be handled efficiently.
A researcher has a series of questions that he needs to find answers by conducting research. Research
method provides a logical sequence to conduct experiments so that all questions can be assessed in proper
order. An impactful research design makes sure the least bias in the data collected and increases trust in
analysed research information. A research design which leaves the least margin of errors can be considered
the best research design.
Let’s learn about the important elements of research design.
• Selection of precise purpose statement of research design.
• Various techniques to be executed to collect details for research.
• Methods opted for the analysis of collected data.
• Types of research methodology opted.
• Possible objections for research.
• Settings required for research.
• Timeline for the research study.
• Techniques and methods to measure analysis.
Characteristics of Research Design: -
A. Neutrality: -The results collected in research should be free from bias and neutral. Discuss and get
evaluated your conclusion with experienced multiple individuals and consider those who agree with
your research’s results.
B. Reliability: -Research design should be able to ensure the standards results by indicating how research
questions can be formed because a researcher will always want the same results every time, he performs
an experiment.
C. Validity: -The validity of a research design is used to calculate the expected results and to estimate the
truthfulness of the result. In most cases, researchers opt for their own definition when it comes to what
is considered valid. Therefore, the questionnaire prepared from the research design is considered valid.
D. Generalization: -Generalization is one of the most important key characteristics of research design. The
results obtained from the research should be applicable to a population and not just to a limited sample.
Research Methods: - It depends on your research goal. It depends on what subjects (and who) you want to
study. Let's say you are interested in studying what makes people happy, or why some students are more
conscious about recycling on campus. To answer these questions, you need to make a decision about how
to collect your data. Most frequently used methods include:
• Observation / Participant Observation
• Surveys
• Interviews
• Focus Groups
• Experiments
• Secondary Data Analysis / Archival Study
• Mixed Methods (combination of some of the above)
One particular method could be better suited to your research goal than others, because the data you collect
from different methods will be different in quality and quantity. For instance, surveys are usually designed
to produce relatively short answers, rather than the extensive responses expected in qualitative interviews.

Types of Research Design: -

1. Case-study design: -A case-study research design is used for the in-depth and detailed study of a
subject. This technique is usually used to narrow down a big problem into small discrete easily
researchable problems. The case study research design is useful to test the applicability of specific
theory or model on the real-life phenomena. A case-study research design is useful in those scenarios
where there is not much information is known or available about the phenomena. The case-study
research design has an important place in various disciplines and professions such as sociology,
political science, clinical science social science, administrative science, and psychology.
Advantages: -
• The case-study research design delivers a thorough description of the explicit and rare case.
• The case-study research design is widely opted by social scientists to test modern real-life situations
and provides an extension of the existing concepts.
• The case-study research design can modify what is already known through previous research.
• It gives the freedom to the researchers to apply various methodologies and include any number of
resources to investigate the problem.
• The case study research design excels at establishing a relationship between a limited number
of events or conditions and also helps us to understand complex issues.
Disadvantages: -
• Sometimes research done on a small sample cannot be applied on a large population. Therefore, a
case study research design is difficult to establish reliability and generalize.
• The researcher can be biased about the finding of the case because of the intense exposure to the
study.
• Case study research design does not enable the assessment of cause and effect relationship.
• Missing important information can make the case hard to interpret.
• Sometimes the case may not be the representation of the larger case being investigated.
• If research is being done on a specific situation or phenomenon then results might be applicable to
that particular case.

2. Action research design: -The action research design follows a characteristics-based path, where
initially an exploratory stance has opted and understanding is developed about the problem and made
some type of strategies for intervention. While carrying out the interventions, various forms of
relevant observations are collected. The same path followed again with the new interventional
strategies and continued until a sufficient understanding of the problem is not realized. The path
followed is cyclic or iterative in nature to provide a deeper understanding of the situation, initializing
with hypothesizing and specifying the given problem and moving ahead making numerous
interventions and assessments.
Advantages: -
• It is a research design which can be used in work or community situations, because of
its cooperative and adaptive research nature.
• Action research design focuses on practical and solution-driven research rather than testing various
theories.
• Action research design increases the chances of learning consciously from their experience,
therefore, it is also viewed as a learning cycle.
• The Outcomes of the action research design have obvious relevance to practice.
• No information can be hidden or controlled by the researcher.
Disadvantages: -
• It is difficult to perform conventional studies because it is the responsibility of the researcher
to boost change for study.
• Over-involvement of the researcher may bias the test results.
• There is no standard format to write action research, therefore, it is hard to document.
• Because of its cyclic nature action research is difficult and time consuming to conduct.

3. Cohort Research design: -A cohort study is generally conducted on a certain population (have some
commonality or similarity) over a period of time. A cohort study is usually applied in medical
sciences and social sciences. A cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence with a specialized
subsection of the population, which is unified by similar characteristics that are relevant with the
problem being investigated, instead of studying statistical occurrence with the general population.
A cohort can either be open or closed but not both at the same time. Cohort studies collect data
applying the method of observation using a qualitative framework. Open cohort studies involve
dynamic population which is separated by the state of being studied in the problem. The size of a
cohort study is not constant because the date of entry and exit is defined by an individual. Rate-based
data is gathered in open cohort studies. Closed cohort study involves a specific population, where
all the participants enter the study at a specific point and no new participants are allowed to take part
in later. Therefore, the number of participants in a closed cohort study remain constant and in a few
rare cases, it can only decrease.
Advantages: -
• In risk-based studies, using action research study is mandatory, because it is unethical to involve
random people.
• Both original and secondary data can be used in cohort research.
• A cohort study is flexible in its nature and can be used to provide insights into effects over time and
different types of changes for example, social, political, economic, and cultural.
• Cohort studies can gauge probable cause before the outcome has occurred. It can establish that these
causes led to the result. Therefore, avoid the debate determining which is the cause and which is the
effect.
Disadvantages: -
• Because of lack of randomization, the external legitimacy of a cohort study is lower than the other
researches which select random participants.
• Cohort studies usually take a long time because the researcher has to wait for certain conditions
within the group. Therefore, there are chances that variables may change with time, hence, impacting
the credibility of the results.
• In the case of comparison of two cohort groups, the factors which differ between the two groups
can’t be controlled.

4. Causal design: -This type of research study is used to analyze the phenomena of conditional
statements like “if A, then B”. the purpose of using this type of research is to evaluate the impact of
a specific change on the existing standards and conventions. In most of the social studies, a causal
explanation is required to test the hypothesis. Causality can be determined by observing the variation
in the variables which are assumed to be causing a change in the other variables. Causal research is
difficult to perform and there is never a certainty that there is no other factor influencing the results,
especially when the research is dealing with people’s emotions and attitudes. But there could be
other deeper psychological reasons that even the subject is not conscious of. There is a total of three
conditions to determine the causality.
Empirical association: An effective deduction is based on finding a correlation between the
independent variable and dependent variable.
Appropriate time order: The independent variable must be tackled before the dependent variables.
Nonspuriousness: a relationship between two variables which is independent of variation is called a
third variable.
Advantages: -
• There are high chances of replication in this type of research design.
• This study has internal validity because of systematic subject selection.
• By proving a causal link between variables and eliminating other possibilities, it helps people to
understand the world better.
Disadvantages: -
• All relationships can’t be causal. There are chances that two unrelated events seem to be related.
• It is difficult to determine the conclusions about causal relationships, because of various superfluous
and perplexing variables that exist in a social environment. Hence, causality can only be inferred,
never proven.
• The cause must come before the effect if two variables are related to each other. It is difficult to tell
which variable is the cause and which variable is effect in a causal design.

5. Descriptive design: - This type of research design is used to describe the characteristics of a
population or phenomena being researched. This study provides the answer to “what” and does not
provide the answers to “how”, “when”, and “why”. Descriptive research does not require an internal
validity to describe the characteristics of a population. This type of research is used to
calculate frequencies, averages, and statistic of data.
Advantages: -
• This approach gathers a large amount of data for the study.
• With the help of this study rich data can be yielded for future references.
• A more focused study can be developed by using the limitations of the study as a useful tool.
• The descriptive design gives a general overview of the study which is helpful to determine useful
pointers for which variables are worth studying.
Disadvantages: -
• This study entirely depends on the instrumentation for observation and measurement.
• The outcome of a descriptive design can’t be used to disprove a hypothesis.
• Outcomes of descriptive designs can’t be replicated as outcomes of this design is collected using the
observational method.

6. Cross-sectional design: -This type of research design can only calculate among or from a variety of
people, phenomena or subjects at the place of change. It has three distinguishing features such as no
time dimensions, a dependence on the existing differences, and selection of groups based on
differences rather than random selection.
Advantages: -
• Cross-sectional research design is inexpensive to perform because this is done using surveys.
• Results are more reliable because it is performed on a population.
• This study provides the characteristics of the result at a point in time.
• Grouping of the population is done based on their difference and are not selected randomly.
• A cross-sectional study can use a large number of subjects, unlike many other research designs.
Disadvantages: -
• It is difficult to find people, phenomena or subjects of same interest.
• Outcomes are time-bound and do not provide any reliability for historical occurrences.
• This study can’t be used to determine the cause and effect relationship.
• AS outcomes are timebound, therefore, there are chances of getting different outcomes in different
time-frame.

7. Exploratory design: -This type of research design is used for the researches on which no research is
done before and have no studies to refer to. The focus of exploratory design is to get understandings
 and knowledge for later investigations. This study determines if a future study is possible or not and
later techniques can be developed for more research.
Advantages: -
• It helps to determine research priority.
• It is useful to gather background data for a particular topic.
• This research answers all questions like “what”, “why”, “how”.
Disadvantages: -
• Findings of the exploratory group are not generalized on the whole population.
• Outcomes of this study are tentative, because of its unstructured style of research.

8. Experimental design: -This type of research design is often used when there is a priority of time such
as cause will always precede effect and when there is steadiness in a causal relationship such as a
particular cause will always lead to the same effect and the degree of association is great.
Experimental design is the blueprint of the procedure that permits researchers to control all factors
of the experiment. Experimental designs use more groups and more measurements for a longer
period of time.
Advantages: -
• It delivers a high level of evidence for a single study.
• This study determines what is the cause of something to take place.
• It helps researchers to determine placebo effects from treatment effects.
Disadvantages: -
• Experimental research is not real and it might not fit into the real world.
• The settings of the experiment may change the behavior of the subjects.
• The experimental researches are sometimes costly, because of the use of special equipment and
facilities.
• There are a few types of problems which can’t be experimented because of ethical or technical
reasons.

9. Longitudinal design: - Longitudinal research design makes repetitive experiments and makes
multiple observations. In this type of research design, the same group of people is interviewed at
regular intervals. In this way, the researcher tracks their behavior and identify variables that have
caused the change in their behaviors. This research study is a type of observational study and is also
known as a panel study.
Advantages: -
• Observation can be made during a particular phenomenon.
• Future outcomes can be predicted on the basis of earlier factors.
• Let the research to establish a causal relationship between various variables.
• Provide an explanation for the pattern of change.
Disadvantages: -
• Methods of conducting experiment might change over time.
• Original sample might change over time.
• More than one variable can’t be shown in this type of research.
• In this type of research, the researcher assumes that the present trends will remain the same in future
also.
• It takes a long time to conduct this type of research.
10. Historical design: - In this type of research data from the past is collected, evaluate and the
hypothesis is defended based on the outcomes. To make this type of research a lot of resources like
logs, documents, notes, diaries, reports, official records, archives, and no textual data like maps,
images, drawings, audios) are used. this research is difficult to conduct because documents should
be authentic and authorized.
Advantages: -
• It is useful for trend analysis.
• It can provide a contextual background to understand a research problem better.
• There are no chances of emotional involvement of the researcher with the subject.
• Historical resources can be used multiple times.
Disadvantages: -
• The success of research completely relies on the quality of historical resources.
• External variables can’t be controlled in this type of research; thus, research remains weak.
• Gaps in the study are difficult to acknowledge because of the missing pieces of historical resources.
• Interpretation of historical resources consumes a lot of time.

11. Observational research design:- This type of research design is used to draw results by comparing
subjects under research with a controlled group. An observational study can be of two types. In the
first type, your subjects know that you are observing them and in the second type, you observe your
subjects without letting them know. Observational research design let you get the insights of a
particular phenomenon without getting into the trouble of setting up a large project.
Advantages: -
• It is a flexible type of research and doesn’t require to stick to a hypothesis.
• In-depth information can be collected about the phenomenon.
• Results can be generalized to real life events.
• It can act as pre-research before starting any other experiment.
• It accounts for the complexity of group behavior.
Disadvantages: -
• Subjects under study are not equally credible.
• There are high chances for this research turned out to be biased because the researcher might notice
what he wants to notice.
• The outcome of this research is limited to a small group and can’t be generalized.
• Subjects might behave differently because of the presence of the researcher.

12. Sequential research design: -This type of research is designed in a staged approach, where you can
move to the next stage only after completing research at the first stage. The results from one stage
are used in the next stage and this process continues until enough data is collected to test the
hypothesis. The sample size can vary throughout the research. After analyzing each stage, research
can admit the null hypothesis or can choose a different hypothesis or even can choose to perform the
experiment again. that means in this type of research design there is no limit on a number of subjects
selected by a researcher.
Advantages: -
• There is no limit on the size of the sample of research.
• Repetitive nature of the research let you make initial changes.
• A sequential research design is not expensive.
 • Fewer efforts from the researcher’s side.
• Because of its sequential nature, results of one sample are analyzed and tested before taking the
second sample into the study.
Disadvantages: -
• It is difficult to maintain consistency in the research from one sample to another.
• Samples aren’t randomized. Hence outcomes can’t be generalized on the whole population.
• Moving the results of one sample to another is difficult work.

2. Sampling and its Types

Sampling means the process of selecting a part of the population. A population is a group of people that is
studied in research. These are the members of a town, a city or a country. It is difficult for a researcher to
study the whole population due to limited resources. Hence, the researcher selects a part of the population
for the study, rather than studying the whole population. This process is known as sampling. It makes the
research manageable and convenient for the researcher. The reliability of the findings of research depends
on how well you select the sample. A sample should be a true representative of the whole population. It
should include persons from various sections and spheres of the population in order to become a true
representative of the population.

The terminologies relevant to sampling are as follows:

1. Sample: - The part of the population selected for the research is known as a sample.
2. Sample size: - The number of people in the selected sample is known as sample size.
3. Sample Frame: - Sampling frame means the list of individuals or people included in the sample. It
reflects who will be included in the sample. For making a sampling frame, the researcher has to
make a list of names and details (e.g., age and gender) of all the members of the sample.
4. Sampling Techniques: - It refers to the technique or procedure used to select the members of the
sample. There are various types of sampling techniques.
There are two types of sampling: -
1. Probability Sampling.
2. Non-Probability Sampling.

1. Probability Sampling: - Probability sampling is a type of sampling where each member of the
population has a known probability of being selected in the sample. When a population is highly
homogeneous, each of its members has a known chance of being selected in the sample. For example,
if we pick some sugar grains from any part of the bag containing sugar, they will have similar
characteristics. In such a case, each member has a known chance of being selected in a sample.
Hence, the sample collected from any part of a bag containing sugar will be a true representative of
the whole sugar in the bag. In such a situation, probability sampling is adopted. The extent of
homogeneity of a population usually depends upon the nature of the research. For instance, if a
researcher wants to know community attitude towards some common and general phenomenon. For
such a study, the whole population serves as relatively a homogeneous group as every member of
the population can be the target respondents of the research. Therefore, a random sampling
technique can be used.
There are 5 types of Probability sampling given below-

A. Simple Random Sampling: - In simple random sampling, the members of the sample are
selected randomly and purely by chance. As every member has an equal chance of being selected
in the sample, a random selection of members does not affect the quality of the sample. Hence,
the members are randomly selected without specifying any criteria for selection. Sometimes,
the researcher may use a lottery system to select the members randomly. Simple random
sampling is a suitable technique for a population that is highly homogeneous.

B. Stratified Random Sampling: - In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided
into sub-groups and then members from each sub-group are selected randomly. This technique
is adopted when the population is homogeneous but not enough homogenous so that a simple
random sampling method can straight be used. Hence, the population is first divided into
homogeneous sub-groups based on certain similarities of the members (e.g., age, sex, religion,
ethnicity ). Then, members from each sub-group are randomly selected. The purpose is to
address the issue of less homogeneity of the population and to make a true representative sample.
C. Systematic Sampling: - As the name mentions, this type of sampling follows a systematic
pattern for selecting members of the sample. In systematic sampling, a member occurring after
a fixed interval is selected for the sample. In this type of sampling, the first individual is selected
randomly and others are selected using a fixed ‘sampling interval’. Let’s take a simple example
to understand this. Say our population size is x and we have to select a sample size of n. Then,
the next individual that we will select would be x/nth intervals away from the first individual.
We can select the rest in the same way.

Suppose, we began with person number 3, and we want a sample size of 5. So, the
next individual that we will select would be at an interval of (20/5) = 4 from the 3rd person, i.e.
7 (3+4), and so on.

3, 3+4=7, 7+4=11, 11+4=15, 15+4=19 = 3, 7, 11, 15, 19

Systematic sampling is more convenient than simple random sampling. However, it might also
lead to bias if there is an underlying pattern in which we are selecting items from the population
(though the chances of that happening are quite rare).
 D. Cluster Sampling: - In a clustered sample, we use the subgroups of the population as the
sampling unit rather than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as
clusters, and a whole cluster is randomly selected to be included in the study:

In the above example, we have divided our population into 5 clusters. Each cluster consists of 4
individuals and we have taken the 4th cluster in our sample. We can include more clusters as per
our sample size.

E. Multistage Sampling: - Multi-stage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. In multi-

stage sampling, each cluster of the sample is further divided into smaller clusters and members
are selected from each smaller cluster randomly. It is called multi-stage sampling because it
involves two or more stages. First, naturally occurring groups in a population are selected as
clusters, then each cluster is divided into smaller clusters and then, from each smaller cluster
members are selected randomly. Even the smaller cluster may be divided further into the
smallest clusters depending upon the nature of the research. It should be noted that the name
‘multi-stage sampling’ is also sometimes used for sampling procedure involving other
techniques where it involves two or more stages.

2. Non-Probability Sampling: - Non-probability sampling is a type of sampling where each member

of the population does not have a known probability of being selected in the sample. In this type of
sampling, each member of the population does not get an equal chance of being selected in the
sample. Non-probability sampling is adopted when each member of the population cannot be
selected, or the researcher intentionally wants to choose members selectively. For example, to study
impacts of domestic violence on children the researcher may not interview all the children but will
interview only those children who are suffered from domestic violence. Hence, the members cannot
be selected randomly. The researcher will use his judgment to select the members.
There are 4 types of Non-Probability sampling given below-
A. Convenience Sampling: -This is perhaps the easiest method of sampling because individuals
are selected based on their availability and willingness to take part. Here, let’s say individuals
numbered 4, 7, 12, 15 and 20 want to be part of our sample, and hence, we will include them in
the sample.
 Convenience sampling is prone to significant bias, because the sample may not be the
representation of the specific characteristics such as religion or, say the gender, of the population.
B. Quota Sampling: - In this type of sampling, we choose items based on predetermined
characteristics of the population. Consider that we have to select individuals having a number in
multiples of four for our sample:

Therefore, the individuals numbered 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 are already reserved for our sample. In
quota sampling, the chosen sample might not be the best representation of the characteristics of
the population that weren’t considered.
C. Judgement Sampling: - It is also known as selective sampling. It depends on the judgment of
the experts when choosing whom to ask to participate.
 Suppose, our experts believe that people numbered 1, 7, 10, 15, and 19 should be considered for
our sample as they may help us to infer the population in a better way. As you can imagine, quota
sampling is also prone to bias by the experts and may not necessarily be representative.
D. Snowball Sampling: - I quite like this sampling technique. Existing people are asked to
nominate further people known to them so that the sample increases in size like a rolling
snowball. This method of sampling is effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify.

Here, we had randomly chosen person 1 for our sample, and then he/she recommended person
6, and person 6 recommended person 11, and so on.
1->6->11->14->19
There is a significant risk of selection bias in snowball sampling, as the referenced individuals
will share common traits with the person who recommends them.

3. Sample Vs Census Survey

Census and sample survey essentially relates to the statistical collection of data across various areas and
sectors pertaining to the particular subject-matter or enquiry. These data collection exercises are undertaken
on a cross-section of a targeted population. The information that is derived from the study of a population
can be subsequently used for various purposes.

Let us discuss the census and sampling.

1. Census Method: -The process used in the census method includes the statistical compilation of all
units or members of the target population under the survey. In this case, population relates to the
entire set of observations connected to a particular study.
For instance, if students of a university have to give feedback on teaching faculty, the former will
be held as the population of that study.
2. Sample Method: - Sample method chooses the different sample entities from the targeted population.
This method involves a statistical analysis of an already determined number of observations that is
derived from a larger set of population. Sample methodology can be used of different kinds; these
can be – simple random sampling or systematic sampling, cluster sampling or stratified sampling,
etc. among others.
Advantages of Census Method: -
• Intensive Nature of Study : In-depth information related to an issue is covered, which helps
in all-inclusive understanding.
For instance, in population census, apart from counting a number of people, other parameters
are also considered, like age, sex, marital status etc.
• Accuracy and Reliability of Results : Results are more reliable and accurate owing to the
vast number of items that are taken into account.
Limitations of Census Method: -
• High Expenditure : -The expenditure incurred during census is much higher because of sheer
size of the population. Also, data is collected from each unit of a sample population, which
requires additional costing.
• Huge Resources Required : -Owing to the huge volume of data that is collated, a greater
number of workforce (as well as man hours) is required for completion.
Advantages of Sample Method: -
• Faster Results : -In the sample method, the number of units utilised is significantly less. It
helps to arrive at results much quicker.
• Economical : -Sample method incurs substantially lower cost than census method as these
tests are done over a limited sample.
• Greater Ambit of Scope: -It has greater scope than census method as it acts as a substitute in
such cases where the latter becomes impracticable. For instance, if a manufacturer wants to
test its range of toasters and other kitchen appliances, it will apply a sample method and not
a census method.
• Cross-checking Census Results and Follow up Measures: -The nature of the sample method
is such that it can be employed to check the results from the census method. Also, due to the
small size of its sample, the method is useful for cross-checking the reliability of its own
results. A small sample can be taken out of generated results, and that sample will have to be
investigated.
Limitations of a Sample Method: -
• Inefficiencies in Sample Selection : -In choosing samples, there is a higher likelihood of
biased selection. The investigator may choose such a sample that is favourable to him or her.
Due to this, entire collected sample sets will not be an accurate representation of the entire
population.
• Difficulty in Selecting a Sample with all Characteristics: -It is likely that samples may not
retain all the characteristics of a population. The problem arises from the limited size of any
sample. In a small sample base, only a handful of characteristics will be exhibited.
• Requires Expert knowledge and Training : -The executors of sample method require training
and specialised knowledge for conducting the survey. In the absence of knowledge of those
special techniques, the exercise cannot be carried out.
 Difference Between Census and Sample: -

4. Data Collection: Sources and Types

Data is various kinds of information formatted in a particular way. Therefore, data collection is the process
of gathering, measuring, and analysing accurate data from a variety of relevant sources to find answers to
research problems, answer questions, evaluate outcomes, and forecast trends and probabilities. Our society
is highly dependent on data, which underscores the importance of collecting it. Accurate data collection is
necessary to make informed business decisions, ensure quality assurance, and keep research integrity.
During data collection, the researchers must identify the data types, the sources of data, and what methods
are being used. Data collection is defined as a method of collecting, analysing data for the purpose of
validation and research using some techniques. Data collection is done to analyse a problem and learn about
its outcome and future trends. When there is a need to arrive at a solution for a question, data collection
methods helps to make assumption about the result in the future. It is very important that we collect reliable
data from the correct sources to make the calculations and analysis easier. Basically, there are two types of
data collection methods. This is dependent on the type of data that is being collected. They are,
1. Primary Data Collection Methods
2. Secondary Data Collection Methods
1. Primary Data Collection Methods: - As the name implies, this is original, first-hand data collected by
the data researchers. This process is the initial information gathering step, performed before anyone
carries out any further or related research. Primary data results are highly accurate provided the
researcher collects the information. However, there’s a downside, as first-hand research is potentially
time-consuming and expensive. Primary data can be classified in to the following two types: -
A. Qualitative data collection methods: - Qualitative data collection methods do not include any
mathematical calculation to collect data. It is mainly used for analysing the quality, or understanding
the reason behind something. Some of the common methods used for qualitative data collection are
discussed below: -
a) Interview Method: -As the name suggests data collection is made by verbal conversation of
interviewing people in person or in a telephone or using any computer aided model. A short
note on each of these methods is given below.
I. Personal or Face to Face Interview: - This is done by an interviewer with a person from
whom data is collected. The interview may be structured or it may not be structured. Data
to be collected is directly got from the person who is interviewed by straight forward
questions or investigations.
II. Telephonic Interview: - This is done by asking questions in a telephonic call. There is
many online calling software readily available to carry out this data collection method.
Data is collected from people directly by collecting their views or opinions on a topic.
III. Computer Assisted Interview: - This type of interview is same as that of a personal
interview, except that the interviewer and the person being interviewed are doing it in a
desktop or a laptop. Also, the data collected is directly updated in a database in a aim of
making the process quicker and easier and it eliminates lot of paper work to be done in
updating the collection of data.
b) Questionnaire Method of Collecting Data: -Questionnaire method is nothing but conducting
surveys with a set of questions targeting the quantitative research. These survey questions are
easily made using online survey questions creation software. It also ensures that the trust of the
people attending the surveys are legitimized. Some types of questionnaire methods are,
I. Web Based Questionnaire: - Web based questionnaire is a method in which a survey
link is sent to the targeted audience. They click on the link which takes them to the survey
questions. This is a very cost efficient and a quick method which people can do it at their
 own convenient time. The survey has the flexibility of doing in any device also. So it is
really reliable and flexible.
II. Mail Based Questionnaire: - In this type of questionnaire mails are sent to the target
audience which contains sheets of paper containing survey questions. Basically it contains
the purpose of conducting the survey and the type of research that is being made. Some
incentives are also given to complete this survey which is a main attraction. The benefit
of this method is that the respondents name remains undisclosed to the researchers and
they are free to take any time to complete this survey.
c) Observation Method: - As the word 'observation' suggests, in this method data is being
collected directly by observing. This can be achieved by counting the number of people or
umber of events that take place in a particular time frame. The main skill needed here is to
observe and arrive at the numbers correctly. Structured observation is a type of observation
method in which a researcher observes for certain specific behaviours.
I. Document Review Method: - Document review method is a data collection method that
is used to collect data from existing documents that are having data about the past. There
are three types of documents from which we can collect data. They are,
II. Public Records: - The data that is collected in an organization like annual reports, sales
information of the past months is used to do future analysis.
III. Physical Evidences: - Physical objects found in study setting. Examples are Flyers,
Posters, Handbooks, Training materials etc.
IV. Personal Records: - As the name suggests, the documents pertaining to an individual
such as type of job, their designation, their interests are taken in to account.

B. Quantitative data collection methods: - The term 'Quantity' refers to a certain number.
Quantitative data collection methods express the data in figures or numbers using either traditional
methods or online data collection methods. Once these data are collected the results can be arrived
at by using some statistical methods and mathematical tools. Some of the quantitative data collection
methods include probability sampling, surveys, conducting interviews.

Secondary Data Collection Methods: - The data collected by an another person other than the researcher
is called secondary data. Data that is to be known is readily available and does not require any special
methods of data collection. Data can be obtained from directly from the company or organization in which
the research is conducted or from outside sources also. The internal sources of secondary data collection
include Company documents, financial statements, annual reports, employee information, reports got from
customers, dealers. External sources of secondary data include information got from books, journals,
magazines, census taken by government, information available in the internet about the topic of research.
The main advantage of this type of data collection method is that it is easy to collect since they are readily
available. Secondary data is second-hand data collected by other parties and already having undergone
statistical analysis. This data is either information that the researcher has tasked other people to collect or
information the researcher has looked up. Simply put, it’s second-hand information. Although it’s easier
and cheaper to obtain than primary information, secondary information raises concerns regarding accuracy
and authenticity. It may be either published data or unpublished data.

I. Published data are available in various resources including

a) Government publications
b) Public records
c) Historical and statistical documents
d) Business documents
e) Technical and trade journals
II. Unpublished data includes
a) Diaries
 b) Letters
c) Unpublished biographies, etc.

5. Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how well
a method, technique or test measures something. Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and
validity is about the accuracy of a measure.It’s important to consider reliability and validity when you are
creating your research design, planning your methods, and writing up your results, especially in quantitative
research.
Reliability: - Reliability refers to the consistency of the measurement. Reliability shows how trustworthy is
the score of the test. If the collected data shows the same results after being tested using various methods
and sample groups, the information is reliable. If your method has reliability, the results will be valid.
Example: If you weigh yourself on a weighing scale throughout the day, you’ll get the same results. These
are considered reliable results obtained through repeated measures.
Example: If a teacher conducts the same math test of students and repeats it next week with the same
questions. If she gets the same score, then the reliability of the test is high.
Validity: - Validity refers to the accuracy of the measurement. Validity shows how a specific test is suitable
for a particular situation. If the results are accurate according to the researcher’s situation, explanation, and
prediction, then the research is valid. If the method of measuring is accurate, then it’ll produce accurate
results. If a method is reliable, then it’s valid. In contrast, if a method is not reliable, it’s not valid.
Example: Your weighing scale shows different results each time you weigh yourself within a day even after
handling it carefully, and weighing before and after meals. Your weighing machine might be
malfunctioning. It means your method had low reliability. Hence you are getting inaccurate or inconsistent
results that are not valid.
Example: Suppose a questionnaire is distributed among a group of people to check the quality of a skincare
product and repeated the same questionnaire with many groups. If you get the same response from various
participants, it means the validity of the questionnaire and product is high as it has high reliability.
How to Increase Reliability?
• Use an appropriate questionnaire to measure the competency level.
• Ensure a consistent environment for participants
• Make the participants familiar with the criteria of assessment.
• Train the participants appropriately.
• Analyse the research items regularly to avoid poor performance.
How to Increase Validity?
• The reactivity should be minimized at the first concern.
• The Hawthorne effect should be reduced.
• The respondents should be motivated.
• The intervals between the pre-test and post-test should not be lengthy.
• Dropout rates should be avoided.
• The inter-rater reliability should be ensured.
• Control and experimental groups should be matched with each other.