Operant & Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning
forms associations
Learning between stimuli (CS and
US).
2. Operant conditioning, on
Chapter 7 (continued)
the other hand, forms an
Mike Baysinger association between
behaviors (responses)
and the resulting events
1 (consequences). 2

Response-Consequence Learning Operant & Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate a response  Classical conditioning involves respondent

with a consequence. behavior that occurs as an automatic response to
a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves
operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the
environment, producing rewarding or punishing
stimuli.

3 4

Skinner’s Experiments
B.F. Skinner: Master of Pigeons
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking,
especially his law of effect. This law states that
rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.
Yale University Library

5 6

1
 Operant Chamber Operant Chamber
Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, The operant chamber, or
Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, comes with
Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.

Edition by Michael P. Domjan, 2005. Used with permission

a bar or key that an

From The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning, 3rd

by Thomson Learning, Wadsworth Division

animal manipulates to
Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

obtain a reinforcer like

food or water. The bar or
key is connected to
devices that record the
animal’s (rate of)
response.
7 8

Types of Reinforcers Shaping

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in
heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired
in the cold. target behavior through successive approximations.
Reuters/ Corbis

A manatee shaped to discriminate

9 objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. 10

Shaping Application - Minesweeping Learning to Bar Press:

Shaping through Successive
Rats can be trained to detect buried mines via the Approximations
scent of TNT.

11 12

2
The Skinner Box: Not Just for Rats Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

 Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus

like food or drink.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PS1KXYpRZbM
 Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer: A learned
reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through
association with the primary reinforcer.

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Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers Instant Gratification and Procrastination

 Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs • Immediate Smaller Pay, or Delayed Larger Pay?
instantly after a behavior. – Many chose to accept an immediate smaller amount
 A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press. after participating in an experiment for money.
– Yet, most of those who received the smaller amount
 Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed (in the form of a check) did not cash that check until
in time for a certain behavior. after those who chose the larger delayed amount
 A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. received their check!
– Application to lottery winners
We may be inclined to pursue small immediate reinforcers
(watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an
A in a course) which require consistent study. Reuben, E., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2008). Procrastination and impatience.
http://ereuben.googlepages.com/ProcrastinationImpatience.pdf
15 16

Reinforcement Schedules Ratio Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces  Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only
after a specified number of responses.
the desired response each time it occurs.
 Piecework pay, frequent flyer miles, coffee cards

2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a  Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response

response only part of the time. This after an unpredictable number of responses.
 Fishing, door to door sales
results in slower acquisition than
continuous reinforcement.
But, more resistant to extinction (e.g., Skinner’s pigeon).

17 18

3
 Interval Schedules
Schedules of Reinforcement
 Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response only after a specified time has
elapsed.
 Preparing for an exam only when the exam
draws close

 Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a

response at unpredictable time intervals,
which produces slow, steady responses.
 Pop quiz, in-class extra credit
19 20

Where Do We See Variable

Question
Reinforcement?
• Say I want to instill a behavior that is resistant Gambling Rewards
to extinction (that is, the behavior persists even on a Variable Ratio Schedule
after the reinforcer is removed). Which
schedule of reinforcement should I apply?
a) Fixed Ratio
b) Fixed Interval
c) Variable Ratio Skinner discussing schedules of reinforcement
d) Variable Interval http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AepqpTtKbwo

21 22

Punishment Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it Although there may be some justification for occasional
follows. punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually
leads to negative effects.

1. Results in unwanted fears.

2. Conveys no information to the organism as to what to do (just,
what not to do).
3. Justifies pain to others.
4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence (e.g.
spanking).
5. Causes aggression towards the agent.
6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another or
23 in other settings (e.g., modeling aggression). 24

4
 Distinguishing Reinforcement
Review of Rewards &
from Punishment
Punishments
Something Something
Desirable Aversive Remember that all reinforcers (both positive AND negative) are meant to increase the
likelihood of a behavior occurring

Example: A baby’s cries increase the likelihood that parents will attend to the baby’s
Add or Give Positive (Positive) needs (negative reinforcement)
Reinforcement Punishment

Take Away or Negative Negative On the other hand, all punishments (both positive AND negative) are meant to
Remove Punishment (i.e., Reinforcement decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring

time-out)
25 26

One Last Example… Singing a Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Song for a Baby
Skinner believed in inner thought processes
and biological underpinnings, but did not feel
it was necessary to consider them seriously in
psychology (because they were
unobservable).

Singing the song can make a baby happy, However, singing the song can also soothe the baby when
which is pleasant for the parent (positive
reinforcement)
it’s upset, which stops it from crying (negative
reinforcement)
Many psychologists criticize him for
discounting them.
27 28

Cognition & Operant Conditioning Latent Learning

Evidence of cognitive processes during operant Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning,
learning comes from rats during a maze exploration which becomes apparent when an incentive is given
in which they navigate the maze without an obvious (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or
mental representations, of the layout of the maze
(environment).

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5
 Motivation Biological Predisposition
Intrinsic Motivation: The
Biological constraints
desire to perform a predispose organisms to
behavior for its own sake. learn associations that are
naturally adaptive.
Extrinsic Motivation: The Breland and Breland
desire to perform a (1961) showed that
behavior due to promised animals drift towards their

Photo: Bob Bailey

biologically predisposed
rewards or threats of
instinctive behaviors.
punishments.
Marian Breland Bailey

31 32

Skinner’s Legacy Applications of Operant Conditioning

Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external
influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines
that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. that shape learning in small steps and provide
reinforcements for correct responses.
Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc

LWA-JDL/ Corbis
33 34
In School
.

Applications of Operant Conditioning Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now
performance. allow employees to share profits and participate in
company ownership.

35 36
In Sports At work

6
 Applications of Operant Conditioning Little Known Fact: Project
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence
Pigeon
of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their During WW II, Army approached Skinner to determine if pigeons could be used as guidance systems
for missiles
occurrence.

Still, ignoring has other negative consequences that make it

aversive; not just removing positive attention

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMsSCryLMOg

While Skinner felt that he had some success, the idea quickly became obsolete
with the invention of radar
37 38

Learning by Observation:
Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
Social Learning
Higher animals, especially
humans, learn through
observing and imitating

© Herb Terrace
others.

The monkey on the right

imitates the monkey on the
left in touching the

©Herb Terrace
pictures in a certain order
to obtain a reward.

39 40

Mirror Neurons Imitation Onset

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the
Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.

brains of animals and humans that are active during

Learning by observation
observational learning.
begins early in life. This
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.

14-month-old child
imitates the adult on TV in
Reprinted with permission from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004)

pulling a toy apart.

© 2004 AAAS.

41 42

7
 Bandura's Experiments Applications of Observational Learning

Bandura's Bobo doll

Unfortunately, Bandura’s
study (1961) indicated studies show that antisocial
that individuals models (family,
(children) learn through neighborhood or TV), if

Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

imitating others who reinforced, may have
receive rewards and antisocial effects.
punishments.

43 44

Positive Observational Learning Television and Observational Learning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may

have prosocial effects. Gentile et al., (2004)
shows that children in
elementary school who
are exposed to violent
television, videos, and
video games express

Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

increased aggression.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

45 46

Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing reinforced media violence leads
to an increased expression of aggression.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

Glassman/ The Image Works

Children modeling after pro wrestlers 47