MODULE 3: CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS,

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND HEALTH

• Concept of biodiversity and its levels

• Benefits of biodiversity

• Causes of biodiversity loss

• Approaches to conservation
 Biodiversity
What does “Bio” mean?

Bio =
What does “Diversity” mean?
Diversity = Variety
Biodiversity: The variety and variability of life on Earth
The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made possible by complex interactions
among all living things including micro-organisms
Levels of Biodiversity
• Genetic Diversity
• Species Diversity
• Ecosystem Diversity
Genetic Diversity
 Species Diversity
Variability within a species/between diff species of a
community
Species richness & its abundance
Ecosystem Diversity
Value of Biodiversity
Consumptive use value
Productive use value

Social value

Ethical value Aesthetic

value Option values

Ecosystem service value

Consumptive use value
Direct Use Value: Goods
• Food
• Building Materials
• Fuel
• Paper Products
• Fiber (clothing,
textiles)
• Industrial products
(waxes, rubber, oils)
• Medicine
Source: © AMNH-CBC
 Productive use value
Commercially usable values: Product is marketed and sold
Tusk ofan elephant,the musk of musk deer, silk from silk-worm, wool
from sheep,the fur of many animals etc.
 Social values
Values associated with the sociallife, customs, religion and
psycho-spiritual aspects of the people
Plants: Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael etc,
leaves/fruits/flowers/plant itself used for worship
Animals: Cow, snake, bull, owl etc in the psycho-spiritual arena of us
Biodiversity at global, national and local level
Only after the “Earth Summit” (1992) there was growing need to know and
scientifically name a large number of species which are still unknown on this
earth.

Roughly 1.5 million species are known till date which is perhaps 15% or may be
just 2% of the actual number

The tropical rainforests are inhabited by millions of species of plants, birds,

amphibians, insects as well as mammals

They are the earth's largest storehouse of biodiversity

About 50 to 80% of global biodiversity lies in tropical rainforests

More than one-fourth of the world's prescription drugs are extracted from plants
growing in tropical forests

Out of the 3000 plants identified by National Cancer Research Institute as sources
of cancer fighting chemicals, 70% come from tropical rain forests

There is an estimated 1,25,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests

The Silent Valley in Kerala is the only place in India where tropical rain forests
occur
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AT NATIONAL
LEVEL
(Indian Biodiversity)
India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna
Overall six percent of the global species are found in India

Estimated that India ranks :

6th among the centres of diversity and origin of agricultural crops

10th among the plant rich countries of the world and

11th in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates

Endemism: Species restricted only to a particular
area are known as endemic

18% of the Indian plants are endemic to the country and

found nowherelse in the world

About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are

endemic to India

Western ghats are the site of maximum endemism

HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
36 hotspots globally
4 hotspots in India
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

1. LOSS OF HABITAT

2. POACHING

3. MAN-WILDLIFE CINFLICT
 LOSS OF HABITAT
• Destruction and loss of natural habitat-- the single
largest cause of biodiversity loss

• Natural forests and grasslands were the natural homes

of thousands of species that perished due to the loss of
their natural habitat

• Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been

cleared to convert into agricultural lands, pastures,
settlement areas, or development projects
 Sometimes the loss of habitat occurs in installments so that the habitat
is divided into small and scattered patches-- habitat fragmentation

The smaller the parcel of land, the fewer species it can support

• If a habitat is destroyed or disrupted, the native species might have to relocate or

they will die

• Destruction of habitat - such as the clearing of tropical rainforests has a

direct impact on global biodiversity
• Disruption of habitat - the declining population of one species can affect an entire
ecosystem
There has been a rapid disappearance of tropical
forests in our

country also, at a rate of about 0.6% per year

With the current rate of loss of forest habitat, it is estimated that

20-25% of the global flora would be lost within a few years

Marine biodiversity is also under serious threat due to large scale

destruction due to human intervention

 POACHING
Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species,

smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens

and herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues

The developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa are the richest

source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth of wildlife

The rich countries in Europe and North America and some
affluent countries in Asia like Japan, Taiwan and Hong
Kong are the major importers of the wild life products or
wild life itself.
The cost of elephant tusks can go upto $ 100 per kg The

leopard fur coat is sold at $ 100,000 in Japan

Bird catchers can fetch upto $ 10,000– for rare hyacinth

macaw, a beautiful coloured bird, from Brazil
 MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by elephants. In
retaliation the villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants.

Several instances of killing of elephants in the border regions of Kote- Chamarajanagar

belt in Mysore have been reported

Cause: massive damage done by the elephants to the farmer’s cotton and
sugarcane crops
Villagers electrocute the elephants and sometimes hide explosives in the
sugarcane fields, which explode as the elephants intrude into their fields

14 personswere killed by leopards---Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai and

created a panic among the local residents
 Causes of Man-animal conflicts
Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forest cover

compels them to move outside the forest and attack the field or sometimes even

humans.

Earlier there used to be wildlife corridors through which the wild animals used to

migrate seasonally in groups to other areas. Due to the development of human

settlements in these corridors, the path of wildlife has been disrupted, and the animals

attack the settlements

Extinct: When a species is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g. Dodo,
passenger pigeon
Endangered: When the number of a species has been reduced to a critical level

or whose habitats have been drastically reduced and if not protected and

conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction

Vulnerable: When the population of a species is facing continuous decline due to

overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such a species is still abundant, but

under a serious threat may go to endangered category if causal factors remains

unchecked
Rare: Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk

are categorized as rare species

 Extinct

Passenger pigeon Dodo

 Endangered

Spotted owl The Great Indian

Tortoise
Bustard
Black rhinoceros Dugong Red panda

Green sea turtle Tiger Snow leopard

 Why biodiversity is decreasing?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
1cvMX82iwRM
 CONSERVATION OF
BIODIVERSITY

Two approaches of biodiversity conservation

In situ (within habitat):

Conservation of species in their natural habitat

E.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests

Ex situ (outside habitats):

Conserving species in isolation of their natural habitat

E.g. gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections
In Situ Conservation
In our country
Major Biosphere reserves-7
National Parks-80
Wild-life sanctuaries-420

Botanical gardens-120

Total area: 4% of the geographic area

The Biosphere Reserves conserve some representative ecosystems as a whole for

long-term in situ conservation.

Ex. Nanda Devi (U.P.), Nokrek (Meghalaya), Manas (Assam), Sunderbans (West

Bengal), Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu), Nilgiri ( Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu),

Great Nicobars and Similipal (Orrisa) biosphere reserves

Within the biosphere reserves, there are one or more national parks.

Ex. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve has two National Parks, Bandipur and Nagarhole
 National Park
An area dedicated to the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. Also
meant for enjoyment through tourism but without impairing the environment.

Activities like--grazing of domestic animals, all private rights, and forestry activities are
prohibited within aNational Park
Each National Park aims at the conservation of some particular species of wildlife
along with others.
 Some important National parks in India
Name of National Park State Important Wildlife

Kaziranga Assam One horned Rhino

Gir National Park Gujarat Indian Lion

Dachigam J&K Hangul

Bandipur Karnataka Elephant

Periyar Kerala Elephant, Tiger

Kanha M.P. Tiger

Corbett U.P. Tiger

Dudwa U.P. Tiger

Ranthambore Rajasthan Tiger

Sariska Rajasthan Tiger

Wildlife Sanctuaries are protected areas where killing, hunting, shooting, or

capturing of wildlife is prohibited except under the control of the highest

authority. However, private ownership rights are permissible, and forestry

operations are also permitted to the extent that they do not affect wildlife

adversely.
 Ex situ Conservation
Outside its natural habitat by the controlled situation
Mainly done for the conservation of crop varieties, the wild relatives of crops, and all the local
varieties.
Main objective: Conserving the total genetic variability of the crop species for future crop
improvement or afforestation programs.
In India, we have the following important gene bank/seed bank facilities:
 Seed bank
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J-gbMuUD9AQ
 Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact
with each other and the surrounding environment.
 Characteristics of Ecosystem
•Biodiversity: Ecosystems exhibit a rich diversity of species, including plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms.
Biodiversity contributes to the resilience and stability of ecosystems and enhances their ability to adapt to
environmental changes.
•Interdependence: Organisms within an ecosystem are interconnected through various ecological relationships,
such as predation, competition, and mutualism. These interactions create complex food webs and nutrient cycles
that sustain life within the ecosystem.
•Energy Flow: Ecosystems rely on the flow of energy from sunlight to support photosynthesis, the process by
which plants and other autotrophic organisms convert solar energy into chemical energy. This energy is then
transferred through the food chain as organisms consume and are consumed by other organisms.
•Nutrient Cycling: Nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are essential for the growth
and development of living organisms within an ecosystem. Nutrient cycling processes, such as decomposition,
nutrient uptake by plants, and nutrient release back into the environment, ensure the recycling and availability of
these vital elements.
•Dynamic Balance: Ecosystems exhibit dynamic equilibrium, with ecological processes constantly adjusting to
maintain stability in response to environmental changes. While ecosystems may experience disturbances such as
fires, floods, or invasive species, they have the capacity to recover and regenerate over time.
•Abiotic Factors: In addition to living organisms, ecosystems are shaped by non-living or abiotic factors such as
climate, soil, water, sunlight, and topography. These abiotic factors influence the distribution and abundance of
species within an ecosystem and play a crucial role in determining its structure and function.
•Succession: Ecosystems undergo ecological succession, a process by which communities of organisms change
over time in response to environmental conditions. Primary succession occurs in newly formed or barren habitats,
while secondary succession occurs following disturbances that disrupt existing ecosystems.
Ecosystems and their services

Ecosystem services: Defined as the direct and indirect

contributions of ecosystems to human well-being, and have
an impact on our survival and quality of life.

There are four types of ecosystem services: provisioning,

regulating, cultural and supporting services.
Provisioning services are characterised by the ability of humans to obtain products from
ecosystems, such as food, water and resources, including wood, oil and genetic resources and
medicines.
Regulating services are categorised as any benefit obtained from the natural processes and
functioning of ecosystems. Examples include climate regulation, flood regulation and other
natural hazard regulation, pollination, water purification and more. urther, pollination by wind and
insects is a service that would not be possible without nature, particularly bees

Cultural services include non-material benefits that people can obtain from ecosystems. These
include spiritual enrichment, intellectual development, recreation and aesthetic values. These
types of services can be hard to monitor and value compared to regulating and provisioning
services, but research in this area is growing. For example, studies have shown that an ability to
see or interact with nature, through hospital windows or hospital gardens respectively, increases
the speed of patient recovery.
Finally, supporting services are those which relate to habitat functioning themselves, and
therefore influence survival. For example, photosynthesis, the water cycle and nutrient cycles
are the basis of ecosystems, which in turn allow us to support ourselves. This type of ecosystem
service also goes down to the genetic level, such as the maintenance of viable species gene
pools.
 Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem

Forest ecosystems are diverse and complex, characterized by unique features and interactions among living
organisms and their physical environment.

•Biodiversity: Forests are among the most biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth, housing a wide variety of
plant, animal, fungi, and microbial species. This biodiversity contributes to the resilience and stability of forest
ecosystems and supports complex ecological interactions.
•Vertical Structure: Forests typically exhibit a vertical structure composed of multiple layers, including the canopy,
understory, shrub layer, and forest floor. Each layer provides habitat and resources for different species,
contributing to the overall complexity and diversity of the forest ecosystem.
•Species Composition: Forest ecosystems vary in species composition depending on factors such as climate,
soil type, and geographic location. Different types of forests, such as tropical rainforests, temperate deciduous
forests, and boreal forests, have distinct assemblages of plant and animal species adapted to their specific
environmental conditions.
•Nutrient Cycling: Forests play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, with organic matter decomposing on the forest
floor and releasing nutrients into the soil. These nutrients are then taken up by plants and recycled through the
ecosystem, contributing to the growth and productivity of forest vegetation.
•Hydrological Functions: Forests regulate the hydrological cycle by intercepting rainfall, reducing soil erosion,
and influencing groundwater recharge and streamflow. The dense vegetation and organic matter in forest soils
help to retain moisture and regulate water availability in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
•Carbon Sequestration: Forests are important carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through photosynthesis and storing carbon in biomass and soil organic matter. This process helps mitigate climate
change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of deforestation and land degradation.
•Habitat and Connectivity: Forests provide habitat for a wide range of plant and animal species, including many
endangered and endemic species. Forest connectivity, through corridors and greenways, facilitates the movement
of species and promotes genetic diversity and population resilience.
•Cultural and Socioeconomic Importance: Forests have cultural significance for indigenous peoples and local
communities, providing spiritual, recreational, and livelihood opportunities. Forest ecosystems also support
economic activities such as timber production, non-timber forest products, ecotourism, and ecosystem services.
 Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystem
Characteristics have been stated below.
•Dominance of grasses: Grasslands are characterized by vast expanses of grasses as the dominant vegetation
type.
•Herbivore abundance: Grasslands support large populations of herbivores such as grazers (e.g., bison, antelope)
that feed on grasses and other plants.
•Fire-adapted vegetation: Grasslands are adapted to periodic fires, which play a crucial role in maintaining
ecosystem health and promoting grassland productivity.
•Seasonal precipitation: Grasslands experience seasonal precipitation patterns, with wet and dry seasons
influencing plant growth and ecosystem dynamics.
•Rich soil: Grassland soils are often fertile and rich in organic matter, supporting extensive root systems and
contributing to high productivity.
•Biodiversity hotspots: Grasslands harbor diverse plant and animal species adapted to open, grassy habitats,
including a variety of grasses, wildflowers, birds, mammals, and insects.
•Grazing interactions: Grassland ecosystems exhibit complex interactions between plants and grazers, influencing
vegetation structure, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem processes.
•Vulnerability to degradation: Grasslands are vulnerable to degradation from overgrazing, habitat conversion, and
agricultural intensification, leading to loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
 Ecosystem or ecological diversity
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with each
other
Ecosystem diversity deals with the variation in ecosystems within a geographical location
Ecosystem diversity is defined as a form of diversity between ecosystems within a geographical location
Ecosystem diversity has three outlooks
(a) Alpha (α) Diversity: The biodiversity within a particular region, community or ecosystem. It is usually
expressed by the number of species in that ecosystem. This can be calculated by including the number of
distinct groups of organisms (taxa) within the ecosystem (Families, genera and species).
(b) Beta (β) Diversity: Beta diversity is a measure of biodiversity which works by matching up the species
diversity between ecosystems or along environmental pitches. This involves matching the number of taxa
that are exclusive to each of the ecosystems. It depicts a range of communities due to substitution of species
which takes place due to the occurrence of diverse microhabitats, niches and environmental conditions.
(c) Gamma (γ) Diversity: It illustrates diversity of habitat over a total geographical area. It is a productof
component ecosystems (alpha diversity) and the between component ecosystems (beta diversity). Gamma
diversity can be expressed in terms of the species abundance of component communities as follows;
γ = s1 + s2 – c

s1 = the total number of species recorded in the first community

s2 = the total number of species recorded in the second community c = the number of species common to
both communities
 Environmental pollution?

Any undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological

characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water,

soil), which can cause deleterious effects on living organisms or property.

Environmental pollution could be of the following types

Air pollution, Water pollution, Thermal Pollution, Marine Pollution, Soil

Pollution, and Nuclear Hazards

 AIR POLLUTION
Definition: Presence of any substance in air which can cause harmful
effects on living things or property

Ex: gases, particulate matter, radioactive substances

Gaseous pollutants: oxides of sulphur (SOx)-- SO2, SO3

oxides of nitrogen (NOx)-- NO and NO2 oxides of carbon (COx)– CO, CO2

volatile organic compounds: mainly hydrocarbons

Particulate pollutants: smoke, dust, soot, fumes, aerosols, liquid

droplets, pollen grains etc

Radioactive pollutants: radon-222, iodine-131, strontium-90

and plutonium-239 etc.
 Sources of Air Pollution

Natural or man-made (anthropogenic)

Natural Sources:

Volcanoes: Volcanic activity produces smoke, ash, carbon dioxide,

sulfur dioxide and other air pollutants

Geysers: The air pollutants emitted by geysers include hydrogen

sulfide, arsenic, and other heavy metals
Forest fires: release of smoke, ash, dust, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other
air pollutants.
Biologicaldecay, photochemical oxidation of terpenes and Radioactive minerals
Man-made:

thermal power plants, industrial units, vehicular emissions, fossil fuel burning,
agricultural activities, etc

Fertilizer plants, smelters, textile mills, tanneries, refineries

chemical industries, paper and pulp mills

Automobiles release
Heavy-duty diesel vehicles
petrol vehicles
 Indoor Air
Pollution
Most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas
Radon gas and its radioactive daughters: lung cancer

Source of Radon:

Soil gas infiltration

The most important source of radon in homes, radon comes from the natural
decay of uranium and radium in rocks and soil. Radon gas can escape into the
air and accumulate in enclosed spaces like buildings.
Can be emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles etc. which are
derived from soil containing radium

Groundwater
Radon can accumulate in groundwater sources like wells in areas with
uranium-rich rocks and soils. Radon in water can be released into the air when
water is used for things like showering or laundry.
Use of fuels like coal, dung cakes, wood, and kerosene

CO, SO2, soot and many others like formaldehyde, benzo[a]pyrene

(BAP) are toxic and harmful to health.

BAP is also found in cigarette smoke and is considered to cause cancer.

A housewifee using wood as fuel for cooking inhales BAP equivalent to 20
packets of cigarette a day
Primary pollutants: Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable
sources

There are five primary pollutants that together contribute about 90 percent of the
global air pollution

These are carbon oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile
organic compounds (mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter

Secondary Pollutants: Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when

certain chemical reactions take place among the primary pollutants

E.g.: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.

 Effects of air pollution
Effects on Human Health
Human respiratory system has its self defence mechanisms for protection
Bigger particles (> 10 µm) can be trapped by sticky mucus and hair in nose But

smaller particles can enter the respiratory system

Prolonged exposure to air pollutants can overload or break these natural

defenses

Can cause diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis and
emphysema

Nitrogen oxides: especially NO2 can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma
or chronic bronchitis, and also increase susceptibility to respiratory
infections such as influenza or common colds

Sulfur dioxide: irritates respiratory tissues, chronic exposure causes a

Carbon monoxide (CO) combines with hemoglobin of blood to form carboxyhemoglobin

Carbon monoxide binding to hemoglobin reduces the oxygen carrying

capacity of blood

CO has 200 times more affinity than oxygen for hemoglobin

Long exposure to CO may cause dizziness, unconsciousness, and even death

Other air pollutants like benzene (from unleaded petrol), formaldehyde, and
particulates like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), toxic metal,s and dioxins
(from the burning of polythene) can cause mutations, reproductive problems
or even cancer
Particulate Matter: is a complex mixture
that contains for instance dust, pollen,
soot, smoke, and liquid droplets
 Effects on plants

Destroy chlorophyll and affect photosynthesis

Erode waxy coating of the leaves called cuticle

Damage to leaf structure:

Necrosis: dead part of leaf structure

Chlorosis: loss of chlorophyll causing yellowing of leaf

Epinasty: downward curling of leaf

Abscission: dropping of leaves

Function of Cuticle: prevents excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests,
drough,t and frost
 Effects of air pollution on materials

Damage to exposed surfaces

Affects monuments, historic buildings, marble statues, etc. SO2 and moisture can

accelerate the corrosion of metallic surfaces

SO2 can affect fabric, leather, paint, paper, marble, and limestone

Ozone in the atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber

Effects on aquatic life

Mixing of air pollutants with rain can cause acidity (lower pH) in fresh water
bodies and affects aquatic life
Control of Air Pollution
Cyclones are used to control PM, and primarily PM greater than 10 micrometers
 Uses of Electrostatic Precipitator
Electrostatic Precipitator is used in various industries mainly steel sector,
power plants, cement industry and other sectors.
The Electrostatic Precipitator is available in various types, size and designs as
per the industrial need. For huge amount of dust particles, multiple ESP can
be used for larger plants.
A Wet Scrubber is an air pollution control system that uses a liquid to
remove contaminants from a gas stream. Removal is achieved by bringing
the gas stream into contact with the scrubbing liquid, which facilitates
mass transfer of the contaminants into the liquid.
 WATER POLLUTION
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBKGxuxFn1E

Unsolicited change in physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of water making it

unsuitable for use

Sources of water pollution

point sources or non-point sources

Point sources: specific sites that discharge effluents directly into the nearby
water bodies

Examples: industries, power plants, underground coal mines, oil wells

Non-point sources: No specific site of pollutants, rather it is scattered

Examples: Surface run-off from agricultural fields, overflowing small drains, rain
water sweeping roads and fields
 Ground water pollution

About 30 times more than surface water (streams, lakes, and estuaries)

Sources of groundwater pollution: Septic tanks, industry (textile, chemical,

tanneries), mining

Pollution with arsenic, fluoride, and nitrate pose serious health hazards

Surface water pollution

Industrial effluents: Toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, radioactive
substances

Sewage: Mixing of sewage water (drains) with fresh water causes pollution

Agrochemicals: Fertilizers (containing nitrates and phosphates) and pesticides

(insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.)
Oil: Oil spillage into sea-water during drilling and shipment Synthetic detergents: Used

in washing pollutes water bodies

 Effects of Water Pollution
Organic matter in water is decomposed by micro-organisms by using dissolved
oxygen in water

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a
particular temperature and atmospheric pressure

DO varies from 8-15 mg/L

Lower DO may be harmful to animals, especially fish population

Oxygen depletion (deoxygenation) helps release phosphates from bottom sediments and
causes eutrophication.

Eutrophication is a process that occurs when a body of water becomes

enriched with nutrients, which leads to an overgrowth of algae and plants.
Nitrate when present in excess in drinking water causes
blue baby syndrome or methaemoglobinemia. The
disease develops when a part of hemoglobin is
converted into non-functional oxidized form.

Excess of fluoride in drinking water causes defects in

teeth and bones called fluorosis

Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans

and are known to cause various health problems

The concentration of these toxic substances builds up

at successive levels of food chain. This process is
called biomagnification
The demand of DO increases with addition of biodegradable organic matter which is

expressed as biological oxygen demand (BOD)

BOD stands for Biochemical Oxygen Demand, which is a measure of how much oxygen
microorganisms consume while decomposing organic matter in water. BOD is a key
indicator of water quality and is often used to assess the degree of organic pollution in
water. BOD is measured by testing the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms in
a water sample over a set period of time, usually five days at 20°C. The difference in
dissolved oxygen (DO) between the beginning and end of the test is used to calculate the
BOD.
More BOD values of any water sample are associated with poor water quality. A higher BOD

means that oxygen is being depleted more quickly in the water, which can lead to less
oxygen being available for aquatic life. This can cause aquatic organisms to become
stressed, suffocate, and die
 Control of Water Pollution

From point sources by legislation

Difficult to prevent from non-point sources due to not having defined strategies but can help to
reduce by the following options:
Proper use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers and usage of nitrogen fixing plants

Following integrated pest management instead of pesticides

Prevent run-off of manure and store in a basin for later use in agricultural fields prevent

overflow of sewage with rainwater

 controlling water pollution from point sources
Treatment is essential before discharge

Parameters to reduce in such water are: Total solids, biological oxygen demand
(BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrates and phosphates, oil and grease,
toxic metals

Waste waters should be properly treated by primary and secondary treatments to

reduce the BOD, COD levels upto the permissible levels

Advanced treatment for removal of nitrates and phosphates will prevent

Eutrophication
 trickling filter: is a fixed-bed, biological reactor that operates under (mostly) aerobic
conditions.
 THERMAL POLLUTION

presence of waste heat in the water that can cause undesirable changes in the

natural environment.

Causes

Heat producing thermal power plants, nuclear power plants,

industries:

refineries, steel mills

Cold water, generally, is drawn from nearby water-body, passed through the
plant and returned to the same water body with temperature 10-16°C higher than

the initial temperature

 Effects of Thermal Pollution
dissolved oxygen content of water is decreased as the solubility of oxygen in
water is decreased at high temperature

The toxicity of pesticides, detergents, and chemicals in the effluents increases

with an increase in temperature

Composition of flora and fauna changes because the species sensitive to

increased temperature due to thermal shock will be replaced by temperature
tolerant species

Metabolic activities of aquatic organisms increase at high temperature and

require more oxygen, whereas oxygen level falls under thermal pollution

Fish migration is affected due to formation of various thermal zones

 Control of Thermal Pollution
(i) Cooling ponds, (ii) Spray Ponds, (iii) Cooling towers

Cooling Ponds
Water from condensers is stored in ponds where

natural evaporation cools the water which can then

be

recirculated or discharged in

nearby water body

 Spray Ponds
The water from condensers is

received in spray ponds. Here

the water is sprayed through

nozzles where fine droplets are

formed. Heat from these fine

droplets is dissipated to the

atmosphere
 Cooling Towers
Wet cooling tower

Hot water is sprayed over baffles. Cool air

entering from sides takes away the heat and
cools the water. This cool water can be
recycled or discharged.

Large amount of water is lost through

evaporation and in the vicinity of wet
cooling tower

Extensive fog is formed which is not good

for environment and causes damage to
vegetation.
 Dry cooling tower

The heated water flows in a

system of pipes.

Air is passed over these hot

pipes with fans

There is no water loss in this

method but installation and

operation cost of dry cooling

tower is many times higher than

wet cooling tower

 SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is the upper layer of the earth crust which is formed by weathering of rocks

Matured soil: soil horizons—Horizon O, A, B, C (from top to down)

Causes/sources: Dumping of various types of materials especially

domestic and industrial wastes

Domestic wastes: garbage, materials like glass, plastics, metallic cans, paper,
fibres, containers, paints, varnishes etc.

Industrial wastes: The effluents from chemical industries, paper and pulp mills,,
steel industries, pesticide and fertilizer industries, pharmaceutical industries,
textile mills, food processing industries, thermal and nuclear power plants,
mining industries, cement industries etc

Radioactive substances: Isotopes of radium, uranium, thorium, strontium, iodine

and many other elements reach the soil and persist there for a long time and keep
on emitting radiations
 Effects of Soil Pollution
Water holding capacity affected

Affect soil fertility by causing changes in physical, chemical and biological

properties

Affect human health

Decomposing of organic matter in soil produces toxic vapors

Radioisotopes in the soil are the source of radiation in the environment

Strontium-90 instead of calcium gets deposited in the bones and tissues

Fertilizers in soil reach nearby water bodies with agricultural run-off and cause
eutrophication

Chemicals or their degradation products from soil may percolate and con-
taminate ground-water resources.
 Control of Soil Pollution

Effluents should be properly treated before discharging them on the soil

Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate

method

Integrated pest management using bio-pesticides

Sustainable agriculture—crop production in a viable manner with no harm to the

environment/ecosystem

Organic farming—using organic manure instead of inorganic fertilizers