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Underwater Inspection and
Repair for Offshore Structures
Underwater Inspection and Repair for
Offshore Structures

John V. Sharp
Cranfield University
Cranfield
UK

Gerhard Ersdal
University of Stavanger
Stavanger
Norway
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
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The right of John V. Sharp and Gerhard Ersdal to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Sharp, John V., 1936- author. | Ersdal, Gerhard, 1966– author.
Title: Underwater inspection and repair for offshore structures / John V.
Sharp and Gerhard Ersdal.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020042682 (print) | LCCN 2020042683 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119633792 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119633822 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119633815 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Offshore structures–Inspection. | Offshore
structures–Maintenance and repair.
Classification: LCC TC180 .S46 2021 (print) | LCC TC180 (ebook) | DDC
627/.980288–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020042682
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020042683

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Underwater and above water © SEAN GLADWELL /Getty Images, Oil and gas platform with
offshore vessel transporting cargo © Danial_Abdullah / Getty Images, U.S. Navy Diver © Stocktrek Images /
Getty Images, A diver inspecting airplane parts in the hold of the Japanese aircraft transport, Fujikawa Maru
© A Cotton Photo / Shutterstock, 3d Rendering of a Subsea ROV Inspecting the Seabed © Vismar UK / Shutterstock

Set in 9.5/12.5pt StixTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

Preface xiii
Definitions and abbreviations xv

1 Introduction to Underwater Inspection and Repair 1

1.1 ­ ackground 1
B
1.2 ­Why Do We Inspect and Repair Structures 3
1.3 ­Types of Offshore Structures 6
1.3.1 Fixed Steel Structures 6
1.3.2 Floating Structures 8
1.3.3 Concrete Platforms 9
1.4 ­Overview of this Book 10
1.5 ­Bibliographic Notes 11
­References 11

2 Statutory Requirements for Inspection and Repair of Offshore Structures 13

2.1 ­Introduction 13
2.2 ­Examples of Country Statutory Requirements 14
2.2.1 Introduction 14
2.2.2 Regulation in the US Offshore Industry 15
2.2.3 Regulation in the UK Offshore Industry 16
2.2.4 Regulation in the Norwegian Offshore Industry 17
2.3 ­Standards and Recommended Practices for Steel Structures 17
2.3.1 Introduction 17
2.3.2 API RP-2A and API RP-2SIM (Structural Integrity Management) 18
2.3.3 API RP-2FSIM (Floating Systems Integrity Management) 21
2.3.4 ISO 19902 22
2.3.5 ISO 19901-9 23
2.3.6 NORSOK N-005 23
2.4 ­Standards and Recommended Practices for Mooring Systems 24
2.4.1 Introduction 24
2.4.2 API RP-2MIM (Mooring Integrity Management) 25
2.4.3 IACS Guideline for Survey of Offshore Moorings 26
vi Contents

2.5 ­ tandards and Guidance Notes for Concrete Structures

S 27
2.5.1 Introduction 27
2.5.2 ISO 19903—Concrete Structures 27
2.5.3 Department of Energy Guidance Notes 31
2.5.4 NORSOK N-005—Concrete Structures 32
2.6 ­Discussion and Summary 33
­References 34

3 Damage Types in Offshore Structures 37

3.1 ­Introduction 37
3.1.1 General 37
3.1.2 Corrosion 38
3.1.3 Cracking Due to Fatigue 40
3.1.4 Dents, Bows and Gouges Due to Impact 41
3.1.5 Cracking Due to Hydrogen Embrittlement 42
3.1.6 Erosion, Wear and Tear 42
3.1.7 Brittle Fracture 43
3.1.8 Grout Crushing and Slippage 43
3.2 ­Previous Studies on Damage to Offshore Structures 43
3.3 ­Previous Studies on Damage to Fixed Steel Structures 44
3.3.1 MTD Underwater Inspection of Steel Offshore Structures 44
3.3.2 MTD Review of Repairs to Offshore Structures and Pipelines 46
3.3.3 PMB AIM Project for MMS 47
3.3.4 HSE Study on Causes of Damage to Fixed Steel Structures 50
3.3.5 Single-Sided Closure Welds 51
3.3.6 MSL Rationalization and Optimisation of Underwater Inspection
Planning Report 52
3.3.7 Studies on Hurricane and Storm Damage 54
3.4 ­Previous Studies on Damage to Floating Steel Structures 57
3.4.1 D.En. Studies on Semi-Submersibles 57
3.4.2 SSC Review of Damage Types to Ship-Shaped Structures 57
3.4.3 Defect Type for Tanker Structure Components 59
3.4.4 Semi-Submersible Flooding Incident Data 59
3.5 ­Previous Studies on Damage Types to Mooring Lines and Anchors 61
3.5.1 Introduction and Damage Statistics for Moorings 61
3.5.2 API RP-2MIM Overview of Damage Types to Mooring Lines 62
3.5.3 HSE Studies on Mooring Systems 63
3.5.4 Studies on Corrosion of Mooring Systems 64
3.5.5 Studies on Fatigue of Mooring Systems 64
3.6 ­Previous Studies on Concrete Structures 66
3.6.1 Concrete in the Oceans Project 66
3.6.2 Durability of Offshore Concrete Structures 67
3.6.3 PSA Study on Damage to Offshore Concrete Structures 68
3.7 ­Previous Studies on Marine Growth (Marine Fouling) 70
3.8 ­Summary of Damage and Anomalies to Offshore Structures 72
3.8.1 General 72
3.8.2 Damage Types Specific to Steel Structures 72
3.8.3 Damage Types Specific to Concrete Structures 75
 Contents vii

3.8.4 Summary Table of Damage to Different Types of Structures 75

3.9 ­Bibliographic Notes 76
­References 76

4 Inspection Methods for Offshore Structures Underwater 79

4.1 ­Introduction to Underwater Inspection 79
4.2 ­Previous Studies on Inspection 81
4.2.1 Introduction 81
4.2.2 SSC Survey of Non-Destructive Test Methods 81
4.2.3 Underwater Inspection / Testing / Monitoring of Offshore Structures 84
4.2.4 HSE Handbook for Underwater Inspectors 85
4.2.5 MTD Underwater Inspection of Steel Offshore Structures 85
4.2.6 Department of Energy Fourth Edition Guidance Notes on Surveys 86
4.2.7 HSE Detection of Damage to Underwater Tubulars and Its
Effect on Strength 87
4.2.8 MSL Rationalization and Optimisation of Underwater Inspection
Planning Report 89
4.2.9 Projects on Testing of Inspection Methods and Their Reliability 93
4.2.10 Concrete in the Oceans Programme 96
4.3 ­Inspection and Inspection Methods 100
4.3.1 Introduction 100
4.3.2 Visual Inspection 100
4.3.3 Ultrasonic Testing Methods 103
4.3.4 Electromagnetic Methods 104
4.3.5 Radiographic Testing 106
4.3.6 Flooded Member Detection 106
4.3.7 Rebound Hammer 108
4.3.8 Chloride Ingress Test 108
4.3.9 Electro-Potential Mapping 109
4.3.10 Cathodic Protection Inspection 111
4.4 ­Deployment Methods 112
4.4.1 Introduction 112
4.4.2 Divers 113
4.4.3 ROV and AUV 114
4.4.4 Splash Zone Access 116
4.4.5 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Deployment 117
4.5 ­Competency of Inspection Personnel and Organisations 117
4.5.1 Introduction 117
4.5.2 Regulatory Requirements on Competency 119
4.5.3 Requirements on Competency in Standards 119
4.5.4 Certification and Training of Inspectors 121
4.5.5 Trials to Study Inspector Competency 121
4.5.6 Organisational Competency 122
4.6 ­Reliability of Different Inspection Methods Underwater 124
4.7 ­Inspection of Fixed Steel Structures 126
4.8 ­Inspection of Concrete Structures 128
4.9 ­Inspection of Floating Structures and Mooring Systems 133
­References 137
viii Contents

5 Structural Monitoring Methods 141

5.1 ­Introduction 141
5.1.1 General 141
5.1.2 Historical Background 142
5.1.3 Requirements for Monitoring in Standards 145
5.2 ­Previous Studies on Structural Monitoring Methods 146
5.2.1 MTD Underwater Inspection of Steel Offshore Installations 146
5.2.2 HSE Review of Structural Monitoring 146
5.2.3 HSE Updated Review of Structural Monitoring 148
5.2.4 SIMoNET 150
5.3 ­Structural Monitoring Techniques 151
5.3.1 Introduction 151
5.3.2 Acoustic Emission Technique 151
5.3.3 Leak Detection 152
5.3.4 Global Positioning Systems and Radar 152
5.3.5 Fatigue Gauge 153
5.3.6 Continuous Flooded Member Detection 153
5.3.7 Natural Frequency Monitoring 153
5.3.8 Strain Monitoring 154
5.3.9 Riser and Anchor Chain Monitoring 155
5.3.10 Acoustic Fingerprinting 155
5.3.11 Monitoring with Guided Waves 155
5.4 ­Structural Monitoring Case Study 155
5.5 ­Summary on Structural Monitoring 157
5.6 ­Bibliographic Notes 159
­References 159

6 Inspection Planning, Programme and Data Management 161

6.1 ­Introduction 161
6.1.1 General 161
6.1.2 Long-Term Inspection Plan 162
6.1.3 Approaches for Long-Term Inspection Planning 163
6.1.4 Inspection Programme 167
6.1.5 Integrity Data Management 170
6.1.6 Key Performance Indicators 173
6.2 ­Previous Studies on Long-Term Planning of Inspections 173
6.2.1 PMB AIM Project for MMS 173
6.2.2 MSL Rationalization and Optimisation of Underwater Inspection
Planning Report 174
6.2.3 HSE Study on the Effects of Local Joint Flexibility 175
6.2.4 HSE Ageing Plant Report 176
6.2.5 Studies on Risk-Based and Probabilistic Inspection Planning 176
6.2.6 EI Guide to Risk-Based Inspection Planning 180
6.3 ­Summary on Inspection Planning and Programme 180
6.3.1 Introduction 180
6.3.2 Fixed Steel Platforms 181
 Contents ix

6.3.3 Floating Steel Structures 182

6.3.4 Concrete Platforms 183
6.4 ­Bibliographic Notes 184
­References 184

7 Evaluation of Damage and Assessment of Structures 187

7.1 ­Introduction 187
7.2 ­Previous Studies on Evaluation of Damaged Tubulars 189
7.2.1 Remaining Fatigue Life of Cracked Tubular Structures 189
7.2.2 Static Strength of Cracked Tubular Structures 195
7.2.3 Effect of Multiple Member Failure 199
7.2.4 Corroded Tubular Members 201
7.2.5 Dent and Bow Damage to Underwater Tubulars and Their
Effect on Strength 205
7.2.6 Studies on Assessment of System Strength 208
7.2.7 PMB AIM Project for MMS 209
7.2.8 MSL Significant JIP for MMS 211
7.2.9 MSL Assessment of Repair Techniques for Ageing or Damaged Structures 214
7.3 ­Previous Studies on Evaluation of Damaged Plated Structures 215
7.3.1 Introduction 215
7.3.2 SSC Studies on Residual Strength of Damaged Plated Marine Structures 216
7.4 ­Previous Studies on Evaluation of Damaged Concrete Structures 218
7.4.1 Department of Energy Assessment of Major Damage to the Prestressed
Concrete Tower 218
7.4.2 Department of Energy Review of Impact Damage Caused by
Dropped Objects 220
7.4.3 HSE Review of Durability of Prestressing Components 220
7.4.4 HSE Review of Major Hazards to Concrete Platforms 220
7.4.5 Department of Energy Review of the Effects of Temperature Gradients 221
7.4.6 Concrete in the Oceans Review of Corrosion Protection of
Concrete Structures 221
7.4.7 Norwegian Road Administration Guideline V441 222
7.5 ­Practice of Evaluation and Assessment of Offshore Structures 223
7.5.1 General 223
7.5.2 Fixed and Floating Steel Structures 225
7.5.3 Concrete Structures 230
­References 232

8 Repair and Mitigation of Offshore Structures 239

8.1 ­Introduction to Underwater Repair 239
8.2 ­Previous Generic Studies on Repair of Structures 242
8.2.1 UEG Report on Repair to North Sea Offshore Structures 242
8.2.2 MTD Study on Repairs of Offshore Structures 242
8.2.3 UK Department of Energy Fourth Edition Guidance Notes 247
8.2.4 DNV GL Study on Repair Methods for PSA 248
8.3 ­Previous Studies on Repair of Tubular Structures 250
x Contents

8.3.1 Grout Repairs to Steel Offshore Structures 250

8.3.2 UK Joint Industry Repairs Research Project 252
8.3.3 UK Department of Energy and TWI Study on Repair Methods for Fixed
Offshore Structures 254
8.3.4 UK Department of Energy–Funded Work on Adhesive Repairs 257
8.3.5 Residual and Fatigue Strength of Grout-Filled Damaged Tubular Members 260
8.3.6 Fatigue Life Enhancement of Tubular Joints by Grout Injection 261
8.3.7 ATLSS Projects on Repair to Dent-Damaged Tubular Members 261
8.3.8 ATLSS Projects on Repair to Corrosion Damaged Tubulars 263
8.3.9 MSL Strengthening, Modification and Repair of Offshore Installations 265
8.3.10 MSL Underwater Structural Repairs Using Composite Materials 266
8.3.11 HSE Experience from the Use of Clamps Offshore 267
8.3.12 MSL Study on Neoprene-Lined Clamps 269
8.3.13 MSL Repair Techniques for Ageing and Damaged Structures 270
8.3.14 MMS Studies on Hurricane Damage and Repair 273
8.3.15 BOEME Report on Wet Weld Repairs to US Structures 274
8.4 ­Previous Studies on Repair of Concrete Structures 276
8.4.1 Introduction 276
8.4.2 Repair of Major Damage to Concrete Offshore Structures 277
8.4.3 Scaling of Underwater Concrete Repairs 278
8.4.4 Assessment of Materials for Repair of Damaged Concrete Underwater 280
8.4.5 Effectiveness of Concrete Repairs 285
8.5 ­Previous Studies on Repair of Plated Structures 286
8.6 ­Repair of Steel Structures 289
8.6.1 Introduction 289
8.6.2 Selection of Mitigation and Repair Methods 290
8.6.3 Machining Methods (Grinding) 295
8.6.4 Re-Melting Methods 297
8.6.5 Weld Residual Stress Improvement Methods (Peening) 297
8.6.6 Stop Holes and Crack-Deflecting Holes 298
8.6.7 Structural Modifications 300
8.6.8 Underwater Welding 301
8.6.9 Doubler Plates 305
8.6.10 Removal of Structural Elements 305
8.6.11 Bonded-Type Repairs 306
8.6.12 Structural Clamps and Sleeves 307
8.6.13 Grout Filling of Members 310
8.6.14 Grout Filling of Tubular Joints 312
8.6.15 Installation of New Structural Elements 312
8.6.16 Summary of Steel Repairs 313
8.7 ­Repair of Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Systems 316
8.7.1 Introduction 316
8.7.2 Repair of Damaged Coatings 318
8.7.3 Replacement of Corroded Material 318
8.7.4 Repair or Replacement of the Corrosion Protection System 318
8.8 ­Repair of Mooring Systems 319
8.9 ­Repair of Concrete Structures 320
 Contents xi

8.9.1 Introduction 320

8.9.2 Choice of Repair Method 322
8.9.3 Concrete Material Replacement 323
8.9.4 Injection Methods 325
8.9.5 Repair of Reinforcement and Prestressing Tendons 326
8.9.6 Summary of Concrete Repairs 327
8.10 ­Overview of Other Mitigation Methods 328
8.11 ­Bibliographic Notes 329
­References 329

9 Conclusions and Future Possibilities 337

9.1 ­Overview of the Book 337
9.2 ­Emerging Technologies 338
9.3 ­Final Thoughts 340
­References 341

Index 342
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 xiii

Preface

All structures deteriorate and experience damage with time, particularly due to fatigue cracking, corro-
sion and damage from extreme and accidental events. This requires inspections, monitoring and appro-
priate repair of these structures to be performed to avoid an unsafe condition. Significant research and
development work have been undertaken related to typical damage types, inspection and monitoring
methods, evaluation of damage, and the need and methods for repair. This book aims at giving the
reader an overview of this research and development work in addition to providing current practice in
these areas, both to inform the reader about the existence of this work and to avoid unnecessary repeti-
tion of research and development.
Since early 1980 the first author of this book, John V. Sharp, has been active in the majority of these
research programmes through his role initially in managing the relevant UK Department of Energy
research work and later as Head of Offshore Research for the UK HSE. Since early 2000 the second author,
Gerhard Ersdal, has had similar roles in managing several research programmes funded by the Norwegian
Petroleum Safety Authority. Both authors have specific relevant expertise and have published a number
of papers on inspection and repair of offshore structures and both are now actively involved in these
areas at the universities of Cranfield and Stavanger, respectively, as Visiting (part-time) Professors.
The authors have had the benefit of working closely with John Wintle, Visiting Professor at the
University of Strathclyde and Consultant Engineer at TWI, in preparing this book and his contri-
butions have made significant improvements to the final text.
This book has mainly been written by using online web-conferencing and in its later stages this
has been forced upon us because of the Covid-19 lockdown in the UK, Norway and many other
parts of the world.
The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors, and they should not be construed
as reflecting the views of the organisations the authors represent. Further, the text in this book
should not be viewed as recommended practice but rather as an overview of important issues that
are involved in the management of inspection and repair.
The authors would particularly like to thank Mostafa Atteya, Eirik Duesten and Rolf Hanson for
carefully reviewing the document and providing many valuable comments. We also want to thank
Mick Else and Fu Wu for their efforts in enabling copyrights for essential illustrations. Further, the
authors would like to thank Stinger (stinger.com), OceanTech (oceantech.com), BSEE, KBR Energo,
Fugro and Atkins (MSL) for allowing us to use their illustrations and Magnus Gabriel Ersdal for draft-
ing some of the figures and valuable input on artificial intelligence and machine learning. The authors
would also like to thank the helpful and patient staff at Wiley.
Microsoft Teams, East Hendred, Oxfordshire and Stavanger, July 2020
John V. Sharp
Gerhard Ersdal
 xv

Definitions and abbreviations

Accidental limit state Check of the collapse of the structure due to the same reasons as described for the
(ALS) ultimate limit state but exposed to abnormal and accidental loading situations
Acoustic emission The production of sound waves by a material when it is subjected to stress
ACFM Alternating Current Frequency Modulated (type of inspection)
ACPD Alternating Current Potential Drop (type of inspection)
Admixture Material added during the mixing process of concrete in small quantities related
to the mass of cement to modify the properties of fresh or hardened concrete
Ageing Process in which integrity (i.e., safety) of a structure or component changes with
time or use
AIM project A project undertaken by the US Mineral Management Services (MMS) for
assessment, inspection and maintenance, providing guidance on managing the
integrity of existing fixed steel platforms in the Gulf of Mexico.
Anomaly In-service measurement (damage, deterioration, defect, degradation, etc.) that is
outside the threshold acceptable from the design or most recent fitness for service
assessment
As-built Documentations that includes as-built documentation collected during in-service
documentation
Asset integrity AIM is the means of ensuring that the people, systems, processes and resources
management (AIM) that deliver integrity are in place, in use and will perform when required over the
whole life cycle of the asset
Barrier A measure intended to either identify conditions that may lead to failure or
hazardous and accidental situations, prevent an actual sequence of events
occurring or developing, influence a sequence of events in a deliberate way, or
limit damage and/or loss
Bilge The area on the outer surface of a ship’s hull where the bottom shell plating meets
the side shell plating
Caisson Major part of fixed concrete offshore structure, providing buoyancy during
floating phases and the possibility of oil storage within the structure, also used for
pipework from topside to underwater typically water lift (intake of firewater,
cooling water, etc.) and outlet of wastewater
CFRP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer
xvi Definitions and abbreviations

Clamp A fabricated steel construction encompassing an existing tubular member or a nodal

joint. A clamp consists of two or more parts that are bolted together. There are a number
of clamp variants depending on whether or not the clamp parts are compressed against
the existing member/joint and on whether there is a medium (grout or neoprene) placed
between the clamp steelwork and the member/joint. A clamp should not be confused
with a guide, which can appear to be superficially similar
Collapse Total loss of the load bearing capacity of the platform through failure of one or
more structural components
CP Cathodic Protection
Curing Action taken to maintain favourable moisture and temperature conditions of
freshly placed concrete or cementitious materials during a defined period of time
following placement
CVI Close visual inspection (type of inspection)
Defect An imperfection, fault or flaw in a component
Design service life Assumed period for which a structure is to be used for its intended purpose with
anticipated maintenance but without substantial repair from ageing processes
being necessary
DFI resume A document summarising key information concerned with the design, fabrication
and installation
Discontinuity A lack of continuity or cohesion; an intentional or unintentional interruption in
the physical structure or configuration of a material or component
Duty holder A UK term for the operator in the case of a fixed installation (including fixed
production and storage units) and for the owner in the case of a mobile
installation
DVI Detailed visual inspection (type of inspection)
EC, ET Eddy current testing (type of inspection)
Evaluation The process of evaluating whether identified changes, defects or anomalies need
repair, further inspection or a more detailed assessment
Fairlead A device to guide a mooring line and to stop it moving laterally before it enters the
vessel
False indication An indication that is interpreted to be caused by a discontinuity at a location
where no discontinuity exists
Fatigue limit state Check of the cumulative fatigue damage due to repeated loads or the fatigue crack
(FLS) growth capacity of the structure
Fatigue Utilisation FUI is the ratio between the effective operational time and the documented
Index (FUI) fatigue life
FCAW Acronym for Fluxed Cored Arc Welding
Fixed structure Structure that is bottom founded and transfers all actions on it to the sea floor
Flaw An imperfection or discontinuity that may be detectable by non-destructive
testing
FRP Fiber Reinforced Polymer
FSU Floating storage units
FSO Floating storage and offloading units
FPSO Floating production, storage and offloading units
Flooded member Inspection technique that relies on the detection of water penetrating a member
detection (FMD) by using radiographic or ultrasonic methods
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
 Definitions and abbreviations xvii

Gross errors Significant errors, mistakes and omissions in the form of anomaly or defects that
may lead to local or global failures
Grout A mixture of cementitious materials and water, with or without aggregate, to fill
cavities and components to form a solid mass when set
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
GVI General visual inspection (type of inspection)
HAZ Heat affected zone related to welding
Hazard Situations with potential for human injury, damage to the environment, damage
to property, or a combination of these
High Strength Steels Steels with yield strengths in excess of 500 MPa
(HSS)
Hydrogen induced The process by which hydride-forming metals such as steel become brittle and
cracking (HIC) or fracture due to the introduction and subsequent diffusion of hydrogen into the
hydrogen induced metal
stress cracking
(HISC)
Inspection Scope of work for the offshore execution of the inspection activities to determine
programme the condition and configuration of the structure
Integrity The state of the structure, ideally being fit for service, and with an acceptable level
of safety against failure
Integrity Continuous process to manage all changes that will occur during operational life
management that may affect the integrity of structures and marine systems
Jack-ups Mobile offshore unit with a buoyant hull and legs that can be moved up and down
relative to the hull
JIP Joint Industry Project, usually in research and development
Kenter shackle A device for joining two chain links as a repair
KPI Key performance indicator, measurement of performance against targets
Life extension The use of structures beyond their originally defined design life
Limit state A state beyond which the structure no longer fulfils the relevant design criteria
Management of A recognised process that is required when significant changes are made to an
change (MoC) activity or process which can affect performance and risk
Marine fouling Seaweed, bacteria and other living organisms in the seawater typically adhering to
(growth) immersed surfaces such as offshore structures, which may build up to significant
thicknesses
Metocean Syllabic abbreviation of meteorology and (physical) oceanography
Microbiologically A form of degradation that can occur as a result of the metabolic activities of bacteria
induced cracking in the environment. The bacteria that cause MIC can accelerate the corrosion process
(MIC) because the conditions that apply already have elements of a corrosion cell
MIG Metal Inert Gas
Mitigation Limitation of negative consequence or reduction in likelihood of a hazardous
event or condition
MMA Manual Metal Arc
MPI Magnetic Particle Inspection (type of inspection)
Mudmat A structure used to prevent offshore structures from sinking into soft
unconsolidated soil on the seabed.
NDE Non-Destructive Examination
NDT Non-Destructive Testing
xviii Definitions and abbreviations

Node Joining point for brace members in a jacket-type structure

Non-redundant Structure that fails when the first primary structural member fails
OPB Out-of-Plane Bending
Partial safety factor (for materials) factor that takes into account unfavourable deviation of strength
from the characteristic value and inaccuracies in determining the actual strength
of the material
(for loads) factor that takes into account the possible deviation of the actual loads
from the characteristic value and inaccuracies in the load determination
Passive fire protection Coatings used on critical areas that could be affected by a jet fire. There are several
(PFP) different types, which include cementitious and epoxy intumescent based
Peening Process of working a metal’s surface to improve its material properties, usually by
mechanical means
Performance Statement of the performance required of a structure, system, equipment, person
standards or procedure and that is used as the basis for managing the hazard through the life
cycle of the platform
Pre-stressing tendons High strength tendons required to maintain the structural integrity of a concrete
structure, particularly in the towers (shafts). These tendons are placed in steel
ducts, which are grouted following tensioning
Primary structure All main structural components that provide the structure’s main strength and stiffness
Progressive collapse The sequence of component failures (from an initial local failure) that will
eventually lead to the collapse of an entire structure or large part of it
Push-over analysis Non-linear analysis for jacket structures used for determining the collapse /
ultimate capacity
PWHT Post Weld Heat Treatment
Redundancy The ability of a structure to find alternative load paths following failure of one or
more components, thus limiting the consequences of such failures
Reserve strength ratio The ratio between the design loading (usually 100-year loading) and the collapse /
(RSR) ultimate capacity
Residual strength Ultimate global strength of an offshore structure in a damaged condition
Return period An engineering simplification representing the probability (q) of an event by an
assumed average period between occurrences of an event or of a particular value
being exceeded. For q less than 0.1 this corresponds approximately to a return
period of 1/q years
Risk based inspection Inspection plans developed from an evaluation of the likelihood and
consequences of failure associated with a structure to develop the inspection
scope and frequency
Robustness Measure of the ability of the structure to be damage tolerant and to sustain
deviations from the assumptions to which the structure originally was designed
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
RT Radiographic testing (type of inspection)
Safety critical Systems and components (e.g., hardware, software, procedures) that are designed
elements (SCE) and to prevent, control, mitigate or respond to a major accident event (MAE) that
Safety and could lead to injury or death. This was further extended in the 2015 version of the
environmental critical UK safety case regulation to include environmental critical elements
elements (SECE)
SCF Stress Concentration Factor
Scour Erosion of the seabed around a fixed structure produced by waves, currents and ice
Secondary structure Structural components that, when removed, do not significantly alter the overall
strength and stiffness of the global structure
 Definitions and abbreviations xix

Serviceability limit A check of functionalities related to normal use (such as deflections and
state (SLS) vibrations) in structures and structural components
Sleeve A sleeve is a concentric tubular surrounding a leg or brace member that is several
diameters long. The annular gap between the sleeve and member is normally
grouted. In the case of an existing member, the sleeve is necessarily split
longitudinally and the two halves are joined during installation using short bolts
SMR Strengthening, Modification and Repair
SMYS Specified Minimum Yield Stress
S-N curve A relationship between applied stress range (S) and the number of cycles (N) to
fatigue failure (regarding fatigue failure, see fatigue limit state)
Splash zone Part of a structure close to sea level that is intermittently exposed to air and
immersed in the sea
SSC Ship Structures Committee
SPT Sacrificial pre-treatment technique (used in adhesive repair)
Station keeping System capable of limiting the excursions of a floating structure within prescribed
system limits
Stress concentration Factor relating a nominal stress to the local structural stress at a detail
factor (SCF)
Structural integrity A state of being intact and fit for purpose, with an acceptable level of safety against
failure
Structural integrity Means of demonstrating that the people, systems, processes and resources that
management (SIM) deliver structural integrity are in place, in use and will perform when required of
the whole life cycle of the structure
Structural reliability Method used to analyse the probability of limit state failure of structures
analysis (SRA)
Stud (chain) Crossbar in the centre of a link of a chain, either welded or mechanically fixed
Studbolt A threaded rod, generally used in stressed clamps
Subsidence Settlement of the structure that results, primarily from extraction of reservoir
hydrocarbons
Surveillance All activities performed to gather information required to assure the structural
integrity, such as inspection of the condition and configuration, determining the
loads, records, and document review (such as standards and regulations)
Testing Testing or examination of a material or component in accordance with a
guideline, or a standard, or a specification or a procedure in order to detect, locate,
measure and evaluate flaws
TIG Tungsten Inert Gas
Topsides Structures and equipment placed on a supporting structure (fixed or floating) to
provide some or all of a platform’s functions
Ultrasonic testing A family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the propagation of
ultrasonic waves in the object or material being tested
Ultimate limit state A check of failure of the structure of one or more of its members due to fracture,
(ULS) rupture, instability, excessive inelastic deformation, etc.
Vibration monitoring Natural frequency monitoring to measure stiffness
Watertight integrity The capability of preventing the passage of water through the structure at a given
pressure head
Wave-in-deck Waves that impact the deck of a structure, which dramatically increase the wave
loading on the structure
 1

Introduction to Underwater Inspection and Repair

The way you learn anything is that something fails, and you figure out how not to have it
fail again1.
—Robert S. Arrighi

Repair is an exacting, technical matter involving five basic steps: (1) finding the deterioration,
(2) determining the cause, (3) evaluating the strength of the existing structure, (4) evaluating
the need for repair and (5) selecting and implementing a repair procedure2.
—Sidney M. Johnson

Before anything else, preparation is the key to success3.

—Alexander Graham Bell

1.1 ­Background

Offshore structures for the production of oil and gas have a long history. The early offshore oil and
gas exploration started in the 1940s in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) and the Caspian Sea4. This was fol-
lowed by the development of the North Sea and Brazil in the 1960s and later activities in the Persian
Gulf, Africa, Australia, Asia and other areas. More recently offshore structures for wind energy pro-
duction have been developed, initially in Denmark in the early 1990s followed by significant growth
in several European countries, particularly the UK.

1 Source: Robert S. Arrighi, “Pursuit of Power: NASA’s Propulsion Systems Laboratory No. 1 and 2”, 2020.
2 Source: Sidney M. Johnson, “Deterioration, Maintenance, and Repair of Structures Modern Structure Series”,
1965, McGraw-Hill.
3 Source: Alexander Graham Bell.
4 According to the 2020 web-version of the Guinness book of records, the earliest offshore platform was the Neft
Daslari in the Caspian Sea 55 km off the coast of Azerbaijan. Construction began in 1949 and it began oil
production in 1951. However, other sources report that production in the Gulf of Mexico began in 1946 by the
Magnolia Petroleum (now ExxonMobil) platform 18 miles off the Louisiana coast.

Underwater Inspection and Repair for Offshore Structures, First Edition.

John V. Sharp and Gerhard Ersdal.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 Underwater Inspection and Repair for Offshore Structures

These offshore structures are continuously exposed to:

●● a sea-water environment, which can cause corrosion and erosion;
●● active and environmental loads, which may cause fatigue cracking and buckling; and
●● incidents and accidents causing physical damage such as dents and bows.
Damage of these kinds can cause loss of integrity of the structure and decrease the margin of
safety. In addition, many oil and gas structures and the earliest of the wind structures are now age-
ing and many have been through a life extension process. Nevertheless, there is a continuing
requirement to demonstrate that these installations remain safe for the personnel that oper-
ate them.
Unfortunately, there have been a number of accidents over the years with considerable loss of
life resulting from structural failures related to inadequate inspection or failure to mitigate anoma-
lies. A typical example is the semi-submersible Alexander L. Kielland accident in 1980 resulting in
the loss of 123 lives. The cause of the accident was the loss of a brace member from fatigue and
fracture leading to overturning and sinking. Fatigue failure initiated at a fabrication defect as a
result of a combination of poor welding and lack of in-service inspection, which led to a cata-
strophic failure.
Other accidents with serious loss of lives have occurred in which structural failure played
a part. In the shipping industry the MV Erika and MV Prestige accidents are examples of
structural failures in storms where anomalies in these vessels failed to be detected and miti-
gated. It is clear from these accidents that in-service inspection and repair of structures are
vital for the safety of structures. In addition, these are also normally required by regulators
and class societies (i.e. ship classification societies, also known as ship classification
organisations).
There are numerous incidences of damage and deterioration that had they not been detected
by inspection and subsequently repaired or remediated could have led to serious accidents and
loss of life. As later shown in this book these types of damage and deterioration include severe
corrosion, fatigue cracks, dents and bows from impact loads, and severed members that could
have resulted in more widespread structural failure and ultimate collapse of the structure.
While these instances are well known to the companies involved and the relevant regulators,
they are not necessarily well reported in the public domain. However, they show the impor-
tance and value of undertaking inspection and repair in a timely way for the prevention of
escalation and maintaining safety. In addition, many offshore structures are now in an ageing
phase where inspection and repair are likely to be more important. The authors believe that
this is an opportune time to review this previous work on inspection, evaluation, repair and
mitigation of such structures.
There are few books on underwater inspection and repair and those that exist are now
significantly out of date. However, a significant amount of previous work is available from
research and technology developments on the topic providing an extensive expertise
accumulated in inspection and repair of structures through many years of offshore
operational experience. Unfortunately, many of these reports are presently unavailable in the
public domain.
This book is intended to indicate the current practice in these fields for those involved in keeping
offshore structures safe, including practicing engineers involved in structural integrity manage-
ment and also for students in the field.
 Introduction to Underwater Inspection and Repair 3

1.2 ­Why Do We Inspect and Repair Structures

Although we intend to design, fabricate and install structures for safe operation during their design
life, the environment, cyclic loading and accidental events will cause anomalies5, which if not
detected and repaired have the potential to cause failure of the structure. Ageing increases the
likelihood of such anomalies being present.
Figure 1 shows the drivers for why structures are inspected. These include factors such as the
balance between minimizing the life cycle cost and ensuring safe and functional structures (safe
operation) by means of inspection and repair. These two drivers will often be in conflict but will
also in some cases coincide as failures that lead to major repairs, loss of functionality or in the
worst case, collapse of structures will have a major impact on cost also. An optimal integrity man-
agement that ensures safe and functionality at a minimum cost is hence often an important goal
in planning inspection and repair of a structure.
Inspections and surveys also provide a means to determine the current condition of a structure
and if necessary, timely undertake appropriate and cost-effective mitigation and repair measures
to preserve the integrity of the structure. This will be discussed further in the book, especially in
Chapter 6 on long-term inspection planning. In addition, regulatory and code requirements need
to be met and these may define a minimum inspection level.
The diagram also illustrates the different changes and uncertainties in the current condition of
the structure that can be detected by different types of inspection and surveys. The primary goal is
to identify any changes, damage and anomalies to the structure but inspections that indicate that
no anomalies are present are also important. Such information is vital in reducing uncertainty

Minimize life Ensure safe

cycle cost operation

Detect degradation Regulatory

Why
early to enable and code
remedial action inspect? requirements

Identify changes and reduce

uncertainty regarding the
safety of the structure

Corrosive Variable and As-is condition

Accidental
environment and environmental (subsidence, tilt,
damages
fatigue cracking loading etc.)

Figure 1 The elements of why we inspect structures.

5 Anomalies are in this book used for any deviation in condition (degradation, deformations, defects, damage and
deterioration), configuration (change in layout, geometry and weight), design regime (new or updated
requirements or practices) and design actions (changes to, e.g., metocean data leading to, e.g., insufficient strength
and fatigue life) that may affect the integrity of the structure.
4 Underwater Inspection and Repair for Offshore Structures

about the condition of a structure and, hence, providing the owner and the responsible engineer
with confidence in that the operations remain safe and assumptions are valid when no significant
or unexpected anomalies are detected.
The decision to undertake any form of repair or mitigation of an anomaly, detected by inspection,
needs to be based on a thorough evaluation and often a more detailed inspection of the anomaly
and its effect on the structural safety, based on established standards and knowledge. If repair or
mitigation is required, the necessary decisions need to be made on how this can be achieved effec-
tively. Failure to repair or mitigate critical anomalies could cause structural failure with the pos-
sibility of significant consequences. Thus, this emphasises the important role of inspection,
evaluation, mitigation and repair in maintaining a safe structure.
Structural failures have occurred offshore with significant loss of life. The first of these was the
Sea Gem incident in 1965 in UK waters with the loss of 13 lives. The resulting inquiry concluded
metal fatigue in part of the suspension system linking the hull to the legs was to blame for the col-
lapse. Fatigue cracking and lack of in-service inspection were significant in the Alexander
L. Kielland capsize in 1980 killing 123 people, as already mentioned.
Offshore structures in the Gulf of Mexico have also failed during hurricanes. For example,
Hurricane Andrew in 1992 caused significant damage to twenty-two of the offshore regions, with
older structures sustaining significant damage. Inspection was needed to determine the extent of
the damage and in many cases this information led to the need for repair in order to resume opera-
tion. Several examples of hurricane damage in the GoM are reviewed later in this book.
Other offshore accidents have also occurred. Not all of these failures were a result of an anomaly
that could be identified by inspection. Some were the results of under-design, underprediction of
loading, accidental damage and gross errors. Such failures typically initiate significant subsequent
research work providing a better understanding of the cause of failure and appropriate inspection
requirements. An example of such is the intensive work that was initiated on fatigue and crack
inspection after the Alexander L. Kielland accident.
The reasons for inspection and repair can change over the life of a structure. Ersdal et al. (2019)
review the statistics of failure for older offshore structures and show that these structures have a
significant failure rate, particularly for floating structures. Figure 2 shows the types of damage to
critical hull members; this includes cracking of the hull, corrosion, vibration and other types. This
figure also shows the trend for increasing damage with age. This is to be expected knowing that
these structures will degrade and accumulate damage, which requires regular inspection and often
subsequent repair and mitigation.
As shown in Figure 2, damage rate increases with age, which is also indicated in a traditional
bathtub curve as shown in Figure 3. In addition, structures are also known to experience some so-
called burn in failures at an early age. These two increases in failure rate are often reflected in a
typical bathtub curve as shown in Figure 3. The phases in the life of a structure related to the
bathtub curve can be described as:

●● an initial phase where anomalies arise from the design, fabrication and installation;
●● the maturity phase representing the useful operating life; and
●● the ageing and terminal phases representing the first and second part of the end of life.
It is important to recognise that frequency, purpose and method of inspection depend on the
phase in the bathtub curve (HSE 2006). In the initial phase, anomalies arising from gross errors in
the design, fabrication and installation should be detected by early inspections (baseline inspec-
tion). The purpose of these early inspections is to determine the existence of gross errors and to
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